THE World History

+ Indian Mythology

2010-09-30T09:08:00.000-07:00

Indian Mythology is not only old (1200 B.C), but also vast. The hymns of the Rig Veda are considered the oldest mythological heritage. At this time man had faith in everything around him and godliness was attached to every wonder he saw or experienced. Thus was formed the triad of the early Vedic Gods - Agni, Vayu and Surya. The Vedic Gods were mere abstractions, intangible and illusive but in the post-Vedic phase or in the Puranas the gods assumed substantial shape and individual character.

The two Itihasa or epics Ramayana and the Mahabharata were compiled in the late Vedic period. The heroes of the Vedic age gradually dislodged the shadowy gods and found their place in the Puranas. The Puranic Gods who had their seeds and roots in the Vedas gave rise to the concept of Trimurti. Thus emerged the transition of Hindu mythology from Vedic Gods (the Cosmic Trinity: Agni, Vayu and Surya) to Puranic Gods (the Hindu Trinity: Brahma - Vishnu - Mahesha).

Om or Aum symbolizes the essence of Hinduism. It means oneness with the Supreme, the merging of the physical being with the spiritual. The most sacred syllable, the first sound of the Almighty - the sound from which emerges each and every other sound, whether of music or of language. In the Upanishads this sacred syllable appears as a mystic sound, regarded by scriptures as the very basis of every other sacred mantra (hymn). It is the sound not only of origination but also of dissolution. The past, present and future are all included in this one sound and all that transcends this configuration of time is also implied in Om.

The Indian pantheon consists of 33 Crore Gods. Although these gods are not individually worshipped expect for some, they have a special place in the Hindu mythology and are often seen in temples or in paintings or pictures beside the main three triads and their various manifestations. Here are some of the significant ones:

HANUMAN - the monkey god - devotee of Rama
INDRA - King of the abode of gods
YAMA - the god of death
GAYATRI - personification of the Vedic hymn
GANGA - personification of the holy river
KAMADEVA - god of love
KUBERA - god of wealth
NARADA - the wandering seer who features in almost all the Puranas
VARUNA - the god of oceans
SOMA - the moon god
VISHWAKARMA - the divine architect of the universe

Other than these lesser gods there are a host of celestial beings. These are often mentioned in the various Vedas and Puranas and are much a part of the Hindu mythology as the lesser gods. Celestial beings:

APSARAS: These are beautiful ladies, who dance in the court of Indra. Indra also uses them to lure the saints and sages who by their severe penance endanger his superiority as the ruler of Swarga (Paradise of Indra). In the Vedas they were personification of vapor and in the Puranas the ballet girls in Swarga. RAMBHA, URVASI and MENAKA are the most celebrated of them.

GANDHARVAS: Gandharvas are the celestial musicians who play in the court of Indra and also when some divine act of the gods had been completed in the interest of humanity. They are said to have a great partiality for women and are said to be exceptionally handsome.

KINNARAS: are mythical beings, with a body of a man and head of a horse. They are singers at the court of Indra. They are also sometimes said to be the minstrels of Kubera's palace at Mount Kailasa, which is also the abode of Shiva.

SIDDHAS: are classes of spirits of great purity and holiness, who dwell apart in the sky or mid-air between earth and heaven.

YAKSHA: They are the guardians of wealth and attendants of Kubera, employed to guard his gardens and treasure. They live in ALKA-PURI (yaksha-puri). The female of Yaksha is known as YAKSHINI.

Animals have a special place in Hindu mythology. One comes across various animals in Hindu mythology some, which have been personified and given a form as the centuries passed. These animals have been symbolic as the vehicles and carrier of various gods or one, which have helped the gods in various times. Some of them appear as independent divine creatures and are worshipped in various ways.

The various animals in Hindu Mythology:

AIRAVATA the elephant - vehicle of Indra
AKUPARA the tortoise - on which Earth or Prithvi rests
ANTELOPE - vehicle of Vayu and Chandra
ARVA, mythical being half horse and half bird - one of the horses of the moon
BUFFALO - vehicle of Yama
CERBURA - the three headed infernal dog of the Krishna legend
CROW - vehicle of Shani
DOG and HORSE - vehicle of Shiva as Bhairava
GARUDA the king of birds - half man and half eagle or vulture, vehicle of Vishnu
JAMBAVANT, the king of bears - ally of Rama
KAMADHENU - the cow of plenty
MAKARA or JALAMPA the mythical sea monster - vehicle of Varuna (god of water)
MOUSE - vehicle of Ganesha
NANDI the bull - vehicle of Shiva and Parvati
PARAVANI the peacock - vehicle of Kartikeya
PARROT - vehicle of Kamadeva
RAM, the he-goat - vehicle of Agni
SARAMA - dog of Indra
SHESHNAG or ANANTA the infinite - the king of Nagas, vehicle of Vishnu or the bed on which Vishnu rests
SWAN - vehicle of Saraswati and Brahma
TARKSHYA - winged horse personifying the sun
TIGER and LION - vehicle of Parvati as Kali and Durga
UCHCHAIH-SRAVAS - the eight headed king of horses produced during the churning of oceans

In Hindu religion and mythology, the nine planets occupy an important role. The planet deities are referred to as the NAVAGRAHA and are supposed to have a significant impact on the lives of individuals. Hindus worship these planets as deities, so that they may bring peace and harmony and avert any mishap.

Of the Navagrahas the first seven Sun, Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, Saturn, lend their names to the days of the week: Sunday to Saturday respectively. The other two Rahu (Ascending node) and Ketu (Descending node) are also fabled as planets, the former as a planet with a head and no body and the latter as a planet with a body and no head. The Navgrahas are propitiated because of their sinister effects (Saturn, Rahu and Ketu) and for their favorable influences (Jupiter, Venus, Mercury, Mars, the sun and the moon). In addition to the nine planets, twenty seven nakshatras (constellations) through which the moon passes and twelve signs of zodiac of the sun, regarded as deities, are consulted at births, marriages and on al occasions of family rejoicing, distress or calamity. Shanti (Peace) propitiation ceremony is held to appease any unfavorable constellations.

+ Monuments of India

2010-09-30T09:00:00.000-07:00

India is a land rich in monumental heritage. The monuments of India not only showcase the breathtaking architectural splendor and intricate work but, also serve as a testimony to India’s affluent past.

List of historical monuments of India
Here is a list of the most popular monuments of India:

Adilabad – The Fourth Fort of Delhi: Adilab is the fourth fort of Delhi, built by Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. Much of the fort now lies in ruins but, the basic structure has survived.
Adlaj Vav – An Architectural Marvel: The structure of the Adlaj Vav echoes the Indo-Islamic style of architecture. It is a unique water work, a five storied step-well and is located in a small village of Adlaj, 19 km from Ahmedabad.
Agar Sain Ki Baoli: A step-well, known for its traditional Hindu style of architecture, Agar Sain Ki Baoli is located at the heart of the city of Delhi. The history of its origin is shrouded in mystery and there are a number of plausible assumptions about the age and name of its builder.
Agra Fort: A UNESCO World Heritage site, Agra Fort is a massive building built by Akbar the great. The fort is made of red sandstone and is located on the banks of the Yamuna River.
Akbar’s Tomb: A Mughal architectural masterpiece, Akbar’s Tomb is located in Sikander, which is a small suburb of Agra. The tomb is a bright red-tired structure and is different from previous Mughal buildings.

Alai Darwaza: Alai Darwaza is a magnificent gateway and belongs to the period of Delhi Sulatanate (1191-1526). It was built by Ala-ud-din Khilji in 1311 and showcases a new style of architecture.

Bada Imambada: It is an important tourist attraction in Lucknow. The design pattern of the monument is the main attraction here. It reflects the era in which it was built. The great hall is presumed to be the largest hall in Asia.
Bandnore Fort: It is a seven storied fort located in the colorful state of Rajasthan. The fort reflects the fascinating history of the past and typifies the medieval Indian military style of architecture.
Bijai Mandal: The structure of the Bijai Mandal is a matter of controversy. It is neither a fort nor a tower. It is an oblong building which houses a number of rooms within in. The intriguing structure was built by Muhammad Bin Tughlaq, the second ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty.
Cellular Jail: The Cellular Jail is located in Port Blair. The jail symbolizes the hardships and inhuman treatment, which the inmates had to encounter during their struggle to attain freedom from the clutches of the British.
Charminar: A famous mosque and monument in the city of Hyderabad, Charminar stands as a pivotal structure around which the glory and history of Hyderabad prevails. The Charminar was built by Mohammad Quli Qutub Shah, the Sultan of Golconda in 1591.
Chittorgarh Fort: The fort is an exemplification of the Rajput style of architecture and highlights the story of the Rajput rulers who laid down their life fighting.
Fatehpur Sikri: It is a majestic city of the Mughal dynasty and was built by the Mughal Emperor Akbar. The Fatehpur Sikri is an amalgamation of different architectural traditions.
Ferozshah Kotla: The citadel was built by Ferozshah Tughlaq. Ferozshah Kotla was the capital city of Ferozshah Tughlaq.
Fort St. Georgefirst Fort of the Colonial Era: Built in 1640, it is the first fort that was built by the British in India. It is located on the coastal areas of the Bay of Bengal and is illustrative of the military architecture.
Golconda Fort: The fort reflects the grandeur of the military architecture. It was used as a defensive structure during the 17th century.
Hauz-I-Alai: It is a unique water work built by Ala-ud-din. It was built with an aim to surmount the problem of water scarcity in the capital city of Siri.
Hawa Mahal: Located in the pink city of Jaipur, the structure of the Hawa Mahal is a perfect blend of Rajput and Mughal architecture. It is an important landmark of the Jaipur city.
Humayun’s Tomb: Built by Haji Begum in 1569-70, the Humayun’s Tomb enhances the Mughal style of architecture. The tomb is located in the eastern part of Delhi.
Itmad-Ud-Daulah’s Tomb: A highly elaborate edifice the Itmad-Ud-Daulah was built between 1622 and 1628 by Nurjahan. It reflects the Islamic style of architecture.
Jantar Mantar: The Jantar Mantar reflects the existence and spirit of science in ancient India. The intriguing structure was built in 1725 by Sawai Jai Sing II.
Kalinjar Fort: The Kalinjar Fort is the abode of a number of monuments and sculptures, which conform to the Hindu style of architecture. It was built in the 7th century AD by Kedar Burman.
Purana Quila: The structure amply reflects the medieval military style of architecture. It was built in the 16th century by Humayun and Sher Shah Suri.
Quitab Minar: Built by Qutub-ud-din Aibak in 1193, the Qutub Minar is an important tourist spot in Delhi. It is a red sandstone tower, which extends to a height of 72.5 m.
Rohtas Fort: The Rohtas Fort stands as a good example of the military style of architecture. The fortress houses a number of buildings in its precincts.
Sher Mandal: Sher Mandal is an attractive structure built in the 16th century by Sher Shah Suri. It was here that the second Mughal emperor Humayun fell to his death.
Siri Fort: It is a defensive fort built by Ala-ud-din Khilji. It was built with an aim to protect the people of his city from the Mongols invaders.
Taj Mahal: No monuments can surpass the Taj Mahal, in terms of the beauty rendered. Built by Shah Jahan in 1632-53, the Taj Mahal marks the peak of Mughal architecture.
The Gol Gumbaz: The Gol Gumbaz is the resting place of Muhammad Adil Shah, the seventh ruler of the Adil Shahi dynasty. Built in 1656, it stands as one of the most important building of Bijapur (Karnataka).
The Red Fort: The Red Fort stands as a good example of the Mughal military architecture. It was built by Shahjahan in 1638-46. It invariably stands as a symbol of India’s Independence.
Tughlaqabad Fort: It is a massive fort which dates back to the period of the Delhi Sultanate. It was built in the 14th century AD by Ghiyas-ud-din-Tughlaq and symbolizes the Tughlaq power.
Victoria Memorial: Built by Lord Curzon in 106-21, the Victoria Memorial is a wonderful example of the colonial style of architecture. It is located in the heart of the Calcutta city and houses a range of beautiful artifacts.

+ Indian Art and Culture

2010-09-30T08:55:00.000-07:00

The Indian Art and Culture unravels the uniqueness and diversity of the country in all spheres. Each region has its own distinctive traits and they inevitably contribute to the profundity of the Indian culture.

Dance forms in India
Here are some of the most popular dance forms of India :

Chhau: This dance form originated in the region of Seraikella and is performed on the eve of the spring festival every year. The mask is the main focus of this dance. It is a traditional art form and is still performed all over the country.
Bhangra: Bhangra is a popular folk dance of Punjab, North India. It is a dance performed on special occasions like weddings and festivals. The dance symbolizes and reflects the happiness of the Punjabi farmers.
Mohiniattam: Mohiniattam is one of the major classical dance styles of India. It is an elegant dance form that originated from the land of Kerela and today, the dance form has spread to other parts of India as well.
Manipuri: Manipuri is a popular dance of the state of Manipur. The main theme of the Manipuri dance is the love of Radha and Lord Krishna. In the 18th century the Manipuri dance blossomed into a classical dance form.
Myriad Emotions: It is a dance form in which myriad emotions are portrayed by the artist dancers. It originated from the Kuchipudi village, in the Krishna district of Andhra and its origin dates back to as far as the 2nd century B.C. Innumerable emotions ranging from pride to anger are expressed.
Odissi Dance: It is one of the oldest classical dances of the country. The dance themes mainly centers on the eternal love stories of Radha and Krishna. The Odissi dance can be distinguished from other dance form by the colorful costumes, ornaments, dance steps and fine display of emotions of love and pangs of separation.
Kathakali: Kathakali is a unique dance form of Kerela and dates back to the 17th century. The themes are mostly religious. The costume of the Kathakali dance is intricate and is one of the distinctive traits of this dance.
Bharat Natyam: Bahrat Natyam is India’s ancient classical dance style. It originated from the land of Tamil Nadu and has come a long way since the time of its invention and days in the temples. This dance form is famous not only in India but also abroad. It is regarded as the most elegant of all the dance form in India.

Indian Music Forms

Tradition – A story of Strings: The string instruments have reached great heights in recent times. The endless moments of ecstasy and pleasure one can derive by listening to the soothing sound of the string instruments, cannot be actually surpassed by any other form of instruments.
Carnatic Music: The carnatic music of the South Indian exposes the rich history and culture of the past. It is considered to be the richest and oldest music tradition in the world. The south Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Kerela, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka are famous for their strong presentation of the Carnatic music.
Hindustani Music: The Hindustani Music has assumed a role of immense significance. It is based primarily on the raga system, which is a melodic scale comprising of notes. Each raga acquires a distinctive character of its own. Hindustani music is catchy, rhythmic and takes us to the depth of the Indian culture.

+ Prehistoric India

2010-09-30T08:51:00.000-07:00

The prehistoric years in India is speculated to have begun from 200000 B.C to about 3500-2500 B.C. Prehistory refers to the time when life first appeared on earth. It also refers to the period of time when the first civilization took shape. Ever since men set their foot on earth, they began to wander from one corner to another. The primitive men lived on food hunting and food gathering. This was their primary occupation and they shoveled in groups of small families.

The Prehistoric Age can be broadly divided into:

Stone Age: As the name signifies, it was an age when stone was used as a primary tool for utilitarian purpose. The Stone Age has been further classified into the Paleolithic Age or the Old Stone Age, Mesolithic Age or the Middle Stone Age and Neolithic Age or the New Stone Age.

Paleolithic Age: Men of this age were food gatherers and they live in close association with nature. The Paleolithic Age is the earliest period of the Stone Age. The stone was used as an effective tool and various kinds of hunting weapons were curved out of them. These weapons were used to kill small animals and for tearing their flesh. Man also learnt to produce fire and extensively made use of them for various purpose. The Paleolithic age lasted till 8000 B.C.

Mesolithic Age: Small communities were formed in this age. Human beings were slowly learning to lead a life of subsistence. The stone tools were modernized and farming began to take place at an alarming rate. Men made weapons like hand axes, spears, borers and burins. There were small settlements in some parts and the age witnessed a radical change in the food and clothing habits. Man adopted the art of drawing and painting and the famous Bhimbetka Cave near Bhopal stands as an indication of the artiste in them. The Mesolithic Age lasted from 8000B.C – 4000B.C. It was an age, which saw an upsurge in the development of human technology.

Neolithic Age: The Neolithic Age is the last stage of the Stone Age Era. Weapons were improvised all the more in this age, as men adopted new techniques. The age saw the wide domestication of cattle, horses and other animals. They were used to produce meat and milk products. It was in the Neolithic Age that the great utility of the wheel came to the awareness of the human beings. At a later stage of this age, bronze and copper were used to make weapons and tools were specialized all the more. In short, it was a period of technological and social development.

Bronze Age: Tools and weapons were given a new look. The Bronze period commenced immediately after the Neolithic Age. Although, the exact date of its origin is not known, it is said to have begun around 3300B.C. Men began to adopt the most advanced means of livelihood.

Iron Age: As the name itself connotes, it is an age when iron became the primary material for making tools and weapons.

+ Ancient History of India

2010-09-30T08:46:00.000-07:00

Dates of the Ancient period of Indian History
It is safe to assume the advent of Aryans on Indian soil as the date of the ancient period in India. The prior civilizations of India have been categorized under Prehistoric Indian civilizations. The arrival of the Aryans to India is believed to have taken place sometime around the 2nd millennium BC. This is also the beginning of a period when we receive the earliest forms of literary sources for the study of history.

Phases of Ancient Indian history

]The history of ancient India can be best described if it is detailed in phases.

The Vedic Age
This is the earliest period of ancient Indian history. The name has been derived from the Vedas or the sacred texts of the Aryans who had arrived in India. In the beginning this civilization centered in the north and north western parts of India. The Vedic Age can be ideally divided as the early Vedic age and the later Vedic age.

Early Vedic Age – the early period of Aryan settlement in the Indian subcontinent as well as the establishment of the civilization can be termed as the early Vedic Age. This period is marked by some important developments.
Rigveda – this ancient text was developed during this age. It is a collection Sanskrit hymns that touch almost every aspect of human life. It forms the basic religious text of Hinduism and the sacred chants are in practice even today.
Political System – it is difficult to assume whether the unique political system that developed during this period was a left over of the Indus valley civilization or entirely devised by the Indo Aryans themselves. However this system was unique in the developments of various political units of administration like that of a Grama (village), Vish and Jana all of which formed the Rashtra.
Administrative System – this was probably the earliest reflection of a republic where the popular opinion of the majority was considered. There were two sections called the Sabha that consisted of elderly people and the Samiti that consisted of younger opinions. It was the joint opinion that was taken in view before implementation by the king.
Caste System – though there was a caste system called Varna it was purely a segregation of the people in the basis of their professional pursuits. There were no discriminations in practice on account of that.
Religious Practices – there were religious ceremonies and all such practices were followed on the lines of the methods laid down in the Vedas. These ceremonies were seen of a communication between man and the Creator.
Later Vedic Age – the Later Vedic Age is defined from a period around 500 BC. This is the period that marks a change in every aspect of life from that of the Early Vedic Age.
Mahajanapadas – in the political arena the earlier units disappeared with the rise of the 16 Mahajanapadas. This rise also reflects the power of kingship that developed in the period with strong domination of the Kshatriyas over political and military affairs of the states.
Caste System – a strict caste system developed over the years with the two top castes of Brahmins and Kshatriyas were considered superior than the others and enjoyed all social privileges. This was the period when severe caste discrimination was in vogue especially against those who were considered to belong to the lower castes.
Religious System – the sanctified religious practices were later replaced by elaborate rituals and expensive ceremonies that were usually out of the reach of ordinary people. The performing of such rituals also made the Brahmins important in society and was considered to be the representatives of God on earth.

Dynasties of Ancient India

There were several dynasties of ancient India that are remembered even today for the number of worthy and efficient kings that each have produced. All of these great men have effectively worked for the welfare of the people as well as the glory of the nation. Some of the important dynasties were as follows

Sisunaga Dynasty – Bimbisara
Mauryan Dynasty – Chandragupta Maurya, Asoka the Great
Satavahana Dynasty – Gautamiputra Satakarni
Gupta Dynasty – Chandra Gupta I, Samudra Gupta, Chandragupta II, Kumaragupta I, Skandagupta

Important Kings of Ancient India

The different phases of ancient Indian history have seen Kings who are remembered even today for their political and military accomplishments.

Bimbisara – he was the king of the Magadhan Empire from 543 BC. He was the famous king of Magadha under whose rule the kingdom was not only increased in its political expanses but also flourished in several activities like arts and culture.
Chandragupta Maurya – the founder of the Mauryan Dynasty he can be given credence for bringing the territories of the Indian subcontinent under one rule. He is also considered to be the true Emperor of India who could have consolidated a huge kingdom with good administrative and military capability.
Asoka the Great – son of Chandragupta Maurya he was one of India’s greatest emperors whose reign extended from 304 BC to 232 BC. He is remembered even today for his political achievements as well as his embrace of Buddhism after the Kalinga War. He was responsible for spreading the religion to several countries of the world.
Gautamiputra Satakarni – he is known as the greatest of the Satavahana kings after his father Satakarni. The Satavahana Empire was integrated into a strong kingdom under his rule when he defeated several detractors to increase the power of the Satavahana Kingdom.
Chandra Gupta I – it was under his rule that the Gupta dynasty saw a rise in its power and glory. He is often described as a Maharajadhiraja which is symbolic of an increase of the power and resources of the kingdom.
Samudra Gupta – he is considered to be the greatest of the Gupta kings. There was a great deal of socio-political and cultural activities that took place during his time. It is understood from the sources that he was a keen patron of music and art besides being a good king to his subjects. The period of his rule between 335 AD and 380 AD is also referred to as the Golden Age in Indian history.

THE WARS OF MARATHA SUCCESSION

2010-05-24T12:50:00.001-07:00

King Shahu’s long reign ended in 1749. A confusion of succession struggles among factions of the royal family promptly ensued, until the peshwa Balaji Bajirao intervened to restore order. The leaders of the various contending factions were convened and forced to accept the conditions he set down, for by this time the peshwa was the true ruler in all but name. He decided that the capital of the kingdom would henceforward be Pune, not Satara, where Shahu had held court; certain offices, such as that of nominal head of the armies, which had been royal appointments, were abolished and along with them many royal rights. All power as well as authority was now concentrated in the peshwa’s office, and he insisted that he would control the king in all things.

The usurpation of royal power by a Brahman minister merely ratified a situation long in development. With a more centralized government structure had comes other accretions of ministerial power. Balaji Bajirao now commanded an army of paid soldiers; no longer did Maratha soldiers retire from campaigns each year in order to cultivate their fields. The day of the Maratha peasant warrior band was over; most fighting men now served as paid soldiers, garrisoned in forts and towns far from home, and trained as infantrymen as well as horsemen. Artillery, however, remained marginally incorporated. The large guns were nominally under the command of Maratha officers; those who fi red and maintained them were often foreigners – Portuguese, French and British – but the guns themselves were not up to the state of artillery art already known to Europeans and to a new, menacing force destined to extinguish the imperial moment of the Marathas at Panipat, near Delhi, in 1761.

Panipat brought the Marathas into fatal contact with the king of the Afghans, Ahmad Shah Abdali of the Durrani clan, who had already proved himself capable of halting the Maratha advance into the Punjab, which he invaded eight times before finally pressing on towards Delhi. The Marathas were now divided among several commanders who approached battle with widely differing tactics; some followed the old system utilizing light horse, others adopted the ponderous Mughal tactics and one Muslim commander modeled his force on the European lines of trained and coordinated infantry and artillery.

Artillery decided the battle in January, 1761: the light, mobile artillery of the Afghans proved lethal against both Maratha cavalry and infantry. Six months were to elapse before the shattered remnants of the Maratha armies that had gathered at Panipat found their way back to Maharashtra, and by then Maratha supremacy over the subcontinent had passed.

During the next forty years, the polity briefly centralized by the peshwas dissolved into a set of states united in one objective: they would no longer brook the arrogant rule of Chitpavan ministers. Otherwise the major Maratha houses, all founded by members of the new military elite that had emerged under the peshwas, concentrated on making kingdoms of their own. The new kingdoms were at Baroda in Gujarat under the Gaikwad family, at Indore in Malwa and in the central Deccan tracts north of the Narmada under the Holkars. South of Delhi at Gwalior was the Shinde (or Sindhia) family; at Nagpur in western Maharashtra the Bhonsles endured; and, finally, in the Pune region, descendants of the peshwas retained a territorial sway made fragile by competing smaller houses in the heartland of the former state. It was this set of fissiparous Maratha states, fragments of the great expansion of the middle decades of the eighteenth century that confronted a British power then in the process of territorial entrenchment in Bengal and the Carnatic, and poised to open the colonial era of Indian history.

PESHWA BUREAUCRACY

2010-05-24T12:49:00.003-07:00

Malwa and Gujarat, closer to the Maratha heartland, had greater wealth than Rajasthan and were treated in a different way. A system of revenue farming was introduced to provide a reliable stream of income to the peshwa without any costly reforms of the socio - economic and political structure of local society. The key Maratha official in this system was called the kamavisdar; he was appointed by the peshwa and empowered to maintain a small body of soldiers to police the administrative tract for which he had purchased the right to collect revenue. A small staff of clerks and minor servants, usually Brahmans, were employed to maintain the accurate revenue records demanded by the peshwa. Tax - farming contracts were auctioned annually after the revenue for a particular place was first estimated by the peshwa ’ s civil servants, usually on the basis of previous years ’ yields. An aspiring tax farmer who won the kamavisdar contract was expected to have a reputation for wealth and probity; he was required to pay a portion of the whole of the anticipated revenue – one - third to one - half – either out of his own wealth or from what he could borrow from bankers. Conscientious kamavisdars prepared detailed records of the localities they had bid for so that they might repeat the process in subsequent years. Most of them also invested in the cultivation and commerce of their allotted territories, expecting to add profits to the commissions they took from the revenue contract.

Record - keeping under the peshwas exceeded any previously known in India, judging from their daftars, which were ledgers of correspondence and account books. These have provided a rich resource for modern historians as well as a model for local administration, imitated by the British India in the next century. The Maratha regime at its zenith was headed by literate Brahmans who made policies as well as account books. Other regimes of the time also employed scribes and some kinds of records were maintained, often by Brahmans whose caste practices were not priestly, but secular, working in the world of politics and commerce just as the Chitpavans did. Hence, while the Chitpavans may have devised the most elaborate system of documentary control India had known up to that point, they were not the only ones to attempt it, in part at least because the problems of governance had become more complicated for all by the eighteenth century.

By then, if not before, bureaucratic management began to be as important to states as military and charismatic lordship. Accurate record - keeping had been introduced in numerous local settings and institutions, but not until the eighteenth century did the principle find expression at the apex of a political order, thanks to Brahman managers who constructed a state form that matched the challenges of the age, yet accorded well with their traditional caste occupation.

Regimes like the peshwas’ look distinctly modern in comparison with the Mughals’, to whose fall they contributed militarily. But the seeds of the Mughal demise were not merely military, or administrative. Peasant restiveness and rebellions had stretched them beyond their already desperate condition in the Deccan. At the same time, gentry nurtured within Mughal society saw its interests better served in opposition to the Timurid regime. The Maratha kingdom of the eighteenth century faced some of the same pressures of change, but devised ways of surmounting them, at least for a time.

The peshwas had to dominate a complex world of negotiation with the diverse local institutions that the Marathas encountered in such far - flung places as Malwa, Gujarat, Khandesh and their territories in the Kaveri basin and elsewhere in the south. Zamindars, or big landlords, village headmen representing powerful peasant castes, and deshmukhs, or regional chiefs, had to be either suppressed or integrated into increasingly centralized structures.

That meant bending these historically autonomous magnates to the will and the ordinances of the rulers. As never before, resources had to be assessed accurately and in detail so that central demands could be accepted as legitimate by the traditional heads of communities who were still capable of effective and costly resistance.

Gradually, during the eighteenth century the proto - gentry of the sixteenth century emerged as a class. Its members were privileged in their political relations with states like the Maratha and the British who succeeded them, and they were involved in rural commodity production and in market towns. These elite also assumed roles as arbiters of local culture, as trustees of religious organizations, which had previously belonged to kings; from that sponsorship they acquired yet another increment of prestige in their social worlds.

Mirroring the processes of social mobility and class formation were new forms of production. The early eighteenth century was once more an epoch of building, most notably of mansions of wealthy families, whose imposing exterior walls enclosed sumptuous interiors with accessibility limited in accordance with the principles of purdah. A new market for luxury consumption of metal work, ornamental ivory, wood and silver work developed, and support for musicians and poets was made part of the quasi - court life of the elite. A new class of wealthy, powerful households had emerged which was to constitute the basis for a modern middle class during the twentieth century.

MARATHA MONETARY MASTERY

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The Maratha over lordship in the Deccan was based less upon its superior military might than upon the qualities of the Maratha elite that grew up under the peshwas and Shahu in the years before 1740. (At the same time, the former imperial Mughal ruling class was being scattered among provincial and minor courts.) Talented and ambitious peasant Marathas found openings to fortune even as those of the older elite of deshmukh families fell, and Brahmans rose with the same tide. Their scribal abilities were at a premium as conquests were followed by the establishment of civil rule. The peshwa’s Chitpavans kinsmen were the special recipients of honours and office, not merely as bureaucrats, but as soldiers in the manner of Bajirao himself. Other Brahmans became bankers, joining those from traditional banking groups who were being drawn into state service. Financial knowledge and institutions were mobilized to realize the prompt transmission of tribute from an increasingly extensive empire, and Bajirao adopted the policy of centralizing all fiscal functions in Pune by 1740.

The northern frontiers of the Maratha state were rapidly pushed into Rajasthan, Delhi and the Punjab; to the east, the Marathas launched raids from Nagpur against Bihar, Bengal and Orissa; and the older area of Maratha influence to the south – Karnataka and the Tamil and Telugu areas eastwards – experienced a Maratha over lordship now invigorated by its sub-continental dominance. Between 1745 and 1751 plundering expeditions were launched yearly by the Maratha chieftain Raghuji Bhonsle and vigorously opposed by Alivardi Khan in Bengal, now more or less independent of Delhi. Raghuji nevertheless forced a settlement which placed Orissa under a governor chosen by the Marathas, making it a Maratha province in effect, and in addition a very large tribute was forthcoming from Bengal. The conflict between Marathas and the Nizam continued over Karnataka, on the southeastern frontier of the Marathas, becoming a stalemate in which Karnataka was shared between both.

Periodic raiding gave way to more permanent administrative milking by the 1750s, which saw a new element added to the complex politics of the Deccan when a French - led army of mercenaries acting for the Nizam fought against Maratha soldiers and provided impressive evidence of a newer European military technology. This was based upon well drilled infantry formations backed by rapid - fi ring, precision - cast artillery pieces, both of which diminished the advantages previously enjoyed by Maratha light cavalry.

Further to the north, in Rajasthan, Maratha influence took another form; there territorial aggrandizement was eschewed in favor of the enforcement of a tribute system over numerous large and small lordships. A lucrative sideline of the Rajasthan policy was the hiring out of Maratha squadrons to minor chiefs who were engaged in fighting each other for some territorial advantage. In time, the Maratha tributary regime extended itself to within fifty miles of Delhi, where, in a narrow tract, the remnant of the great Mughal Empire gasped its last.

THE NEW ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL OPPORTUNITIES UNDER THE MARATHAS

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Warfare opened opportunities for talented commanders among deshmukh families, but there were also increased opportunities for Brahmans, and they too contributed to the vigorous expansion of Maratha power early in the eighteenth century. Notable among them was the ministerial lineage of Chitpavans, who held the office of peshwa under King Shahu and his successors.

Originating modestly as that of keeper of records, under the peshwa Balaji Viswanath, the office was transformed into that of prime minister of the kingdom, and hereditary to boot. Viswanath’s son Bajirao held the post from 1720 to 1740 and Bajirao’s son Balaji Bajirao from then to 1761. Under the peshwas a new elite formed consisting partly of old deshmukh families to which were added other, self - made, men, leaders of military bands who might have held pedigrees no greater than that of village headman. New men and households displaced older families that failed to meet the standards of rapine and cunning of the new era politics in an emergent Maratha state.

Given the persistent independence and fickle affiliation of the chiefly deshmukhs and warrior leaders among the Marathas, such solidity as the Maratha state possessed must be attributed to the personalities of Shahu and his ministers, the peshwas. Consolidation of royal power during the first half of the eighteenth century was tenuously achieved, or bought, through the conferral of royal entitlements upon those who served Shahu or the peshwa. These were non - hereditary grants of privilege and property, supposedly conditional on state service. However, the fighting elite who were the usual recipients of such honours assiduously converted the conditionality of the grants into community - backed, hereditary privileges called watan, a term signifying the ‘home’ and the core rights of a family upon which wealth and status depended. Nevertheless, during Shahu ’ s forty - year reign, even while a large set of landed households profited from state employment, a stronger, more centralized, state structure began to take form, thanks to the ageing king and his succession of ministers.

During most of Shahu’s reign, there was a steady increase in the territory under Maratha sway, from which tribute was extracted; after his death in 1749, and until 1761, these conquests were at first continued under the peshwa Balaji Bajirao. Shahu’s perspicacious choice of the twenty-year–old Bajirao to follow his father into the office of peshwa in 1720 had defied advice, but misgivings were stilled when Bajirao outlined his plans. He had decided to launch the major Maratha thrust against the Mughals, leaving for the future the possibility of advancing the Maratha hegemony into the south and against the realm of the Nizam of Hyderabad. He also decided that he himself should assume command of this northern expedition on behalf of Shahu, so as to assure that the king alone accrued the glory and wealth of humbling the Mughals that he was sure would follow. To finance this military campaign, he judged that the treasure it would yield would pay for both the war and the subsequent administration of Gujarat and Malwa. Even Delhi itself was not ruled out as an object of conquest and source of treasure.

Bajirao was astute in his choice of commanders for these undertakings. Passing over the established elite of the deshmukhs, commands were given to new men of the Gaikwad, Holkar and Shinde families, who had been loyal to Shahu and to his father and now to himself. Enhanced armies were formed, and when they were not deployed on the peshwa’s conquests they served his interests by being hired out to lesser lords in some remote conflict.

The northern adventure proceeded. Malwa and Gujarat were freed of Mughal domination by the mid - 1720s, after the dispirited Mughal commanders were defeated along with troops of the Nizam who intervened on behalf of the Mughals. Now it became necessary to deal with the Nizam, and this Bajirao did; in 1728 the main force of the Nizam was trapped by Maratha horsemen in the favorable guerrilla terrain around Aurangabad and forced to agree to terms. Bajirao demanded the recognition of Shahu as the king of Maharashtra and overlord of the rest of the Deccan, from which the tribute of chauth and sardeshmukhi could be legitimately collected by Maratha officials.

The way to a resumption of the northern conquests was open and during the 1730s Maratha forces – larger than ever – ranged northward to the Gangetic valley and finally raided Delhi in 1737. A ransom was collected from the humiliated Mughal emperor and a year later the Marathas inflicted a crushing defeat on another Mughal army. A treaty agreed at Bhopal in 1739 formally ceded Malwa – from the Narmada to the Chambal River – to the Marathas. This placed their authority some fifty miles south of Agra, and the victorious Bajirao added a large tribute of treasure for presentation to Shahu.

Having conquered this vast territory, the peshwa lost no time in consolidating Maratha rule by appointing Maratha collectors of tribute in the courts of the larger zamindars. The conquest of Malwa became a model for other conquests. Maratha rule was first established in the countryside rather than cities, and at the outset no effort was made to displace local, rural magnates, merely to collect tribute from them.

The confidence with which Bajirao extended the power of the Marathas grew not so much from their military supremacy as from the weakness of their enemies, especially the Mughals. True, the Marathas mounted ever – larger forces. In the early eighteenth century, their armies consisted of no more than 5000 horsemen and no artillery; after 1720, the operating units doubled in size but even then they were not able to match the Mughals and their other enemies in artillery, which proved a serious limitation in wars against the Nizam in the middle 1730s. Eventually, however, the Mughal failure to maintain the efficiency of their gunnery after Aurangzeb ’ s time became evident to all during the cataclysmic invasion of India by the Iranian king Nadir Shah.

Having driven the Mughals from Afghanistan with surprising ease, Nadir Shah was emboldened to press on into the Punjab and continue on to Delhi, where he defeated a demoralized Mughal army in 1739. As a final humiliation of the once great Mughals, the city was sacked and over 20,000 of its inhabitants were killed during the pillage. A vast treasure was looted, including the Peacock Throne itself. And one element in Nadir Shah’s success was his improved artillery, especially horse - mounted guns for use against the Mughal cavalry.

THE MARATHA MOMENT

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The Marathas had emerged from among the dominant peasant clans living in the western Indian Territory where the Marathi language was spoken. During the sixteenth century the sultans of Bijapur and Ahmadnagar had recruited them to serve as light cavalry and balance the political ambitions of the Muslim soldiers in their employ. Other Maharashtrians to benefit t from the equal opportunity policies of the Muslim overlords were Brahmans, who were divided into those who lived on the dry plateau above the sea and called Deshastas, and those from the lowlands along the Arabian Sea, the Konkan region, who were called Chitpavans. Though all were Marathi - speakers, they distinguished their statuses carefully from the peasant Marathas. The Brahmans derived their high standing from administrative service to Muslim regimes and also from their participation in the bhakti or devotional cults of Maharashtra.

In addition to supplying soldiers and administrators to neighboring states, Maharashtra attracted economic interest. Cotton was spun, cultivated and woven, contributing a valuable commodity to the trade of the port of Surat. A thriving inter-regional commerce connected the high plateau and the littoral. From the littoral came a variety of useful coconut products, fish, salt, timber and fruit, which were exchanged for upland products, sugar cane, cotton, tobacco and pulses, which complemented the rice diet of the coast.

A final feature of sixteenth - and seventeenth - century Maharashtra which helps to explain some of the synergistic expansionism of the eighteenth century was the structure of local authority. A few towns and cities showed influences from and maintained contact with the wider Deccan region and the Arabian Sea coast outside of Maharashtra – Ahmadnagar, Aurangabad, Nagpur, Nasik and Burhanpur – but the politics of the region were those of rural chiefs called deshmukh (literally, ‘ head of the land or place’).

The territorial sway of the deshmukhs extended over between twenty and a hundred villages, each of which had a powerful headman (Patel), assisted by a keeper of records (kulkarni). Headmen were inevitably drawn from the Maratha peasant castes, while village accountants were almost always Brahmans. In the absence of a powerful state apparatus within the country, this local community - level officials were the government. The role of external authorities such as the Deccan sultans, or, later, occasionally the Mughals, was minimal; all of them took an irregular share of the taxes collected from agriculture and trade and conferred legitimating documents of investiture, or revenue collection contracts, upon deshmukhs, patils and kulkarni. A more elevated deshmukh office was that of sardeshmukhi, head of deshmukhs, recognized by the Mughals, as was that of chief accountant (deshkulkarni). The ambiguity of such offices was revealed in a seventeenth - century Marathi political treatise, the Ajnapatra:

The deshmukhs and deshkulkarni, the patils et cetera, they may be called ‘office - holders’, but this is only a term of convention. They are in fact small but self – sufficient chiefs. They are not strong on their own, but they succeed in keeping up their power by allying themselves with the ‘lord of all land’ [i.e. the king]. Yet it must not be thought that their interests coincide with that of the latter. These people are in reality the co - sharers (dayada) of the kingdom.

The writer was a minister of the Maratha king Shivaji, who, like other rulers of the seventeenth century, sought greater control over the autonomous countryside. The word ‘ dayada ’ aptly characterizes the lightness with which the state bore down upon Marathi - speakers in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, but the heavily localized socio - political system could be galvanized from within under vigorous leadership, which happened in Maharashtra in the early eighteenth century as Mughal power waned.

Aurangzeb’s determination to stifle the political and military challenge of the Marathas had begun with the intention of punishing Shivaji’s successor Shambuji for offering shelter to the rebel prince Akbar. Subsequently the emperor found other reasons to try to rid the Deccan of Maratha predations, and he dedicated the Mughal house to this ultimately vain pursuit. Shambuji faced the onslaught with skill and cunning, though in the end he was captured and executed. At the same time he found himself threatened by the deshmukhs who resented his royal pretensions; some of them even approached Aurangzeb, offering to join with Mughals against Shambuji providing they were adequately rewarded. In return for serving the Mughals, they wanted confirmation that all the special rights their families had accumulated would remain hereditary, and some of them were granted valuable jagirs by the wily emperor. Shambuji dealt with their treason by burning their villages, not sparing some who were close to his own family by marriage.

Shambuji’s successors faced the same wavering loyalty from deshmukh families. Switching between Mughal and Maratha service regularly occurred, each change of employment an occasion for a deshmukh to add to his family property and entitlements. In return, when a deshmukh defected he took with him the militia he commanded. By the time of Shambuji’s grandson King Shahu – a name meaning ‘honest’, and originally a soubriquet accorded by Aurangzeb to contrast his character with that of Shivaji – who ruled from 1708 to 1749, Maratha fighting bands could combine in formidable armies which regularly raided and pillaged Mughal tracts along the northern frontier. Soon they were reaching towards Delhi itself, as well as continuing to prey upon parts of Karnataka and the Tamil country.

+- Magadha Empire

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Magadha Empire lasted from 684 B.C - 320 B.C in India. The two great epics Ramayana and Mahabharata mention the Magadha Empire. It is said that the Shishunaga dynasty founded the Magadha Empire. Some of the greatest empires and religions of India originated here. The Gupta Empire and Mauryan Empire started here. The great religions, Buddhism and Jainism were founded in Magadha Empire. Read on to know about the history of Magadh Empire.

Magadha Empire gained much power and importance during the rule of King Bimbisara and his son and successor Ajatshatru. Bimbisara is said to have been murdered by his son Ajatshatru. The Magadha Empire in India extended in the modern day Bihar and Patna and some parts of Bengal. Magadha Empire was a part of the 16 Mahajanapadas. The empire extended up to River Ganges and the kingdoms of Kosala and Kashi were annexed. The places that came under the Magadha Empire were mostly republican in nature and the administration was divided into judicial, executive and military functions

The Magadha Empire fought gruesome battles with most of its neighbors. They had advanced forms of weaponry andthe opposed forces did not stand a chance against them. Ajatshatru even built a huge fort at his capital Pataliputra. This was the place that Buddha prophesized would become a popular place of trade and commerce. With an unmatched military force, the Magadha Empire naturally had an upper hand over conquering neighborhood places and spreading the territory. This is what made it a major part of the 16 Mahajanapadas.

However, after the death of King Udayan, the Magadha Empire started to decline very rapidly. Internal disturbances and corruption within the kingdom led to its decline. The Magadha Empire was finally taken over by the powerful Nanda dynasty who then ruled here for a good amount of time before being taken over by the Mauryas.

+- Gupta Empire

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The Gupta period marks an important phase in the history of ancient India. The long and efficient rule of the Guptas made a huge impact on the political, social and cultural spheres. Though the Gupta Empire was not as widespread as the Mauryan Empire was in India, yet the Gupta dynasty was successful in creating an empire that is significant in the history of India. The Gupta Period is also popularly known as the Golden Age of India and for the right reasons. The lifestyle and culture of the Gupta dynasty is known through the availability of various ancient coins, scriptures, inscriptions, texts, etc. belonging to that era.

The rulers of the Gupta Empire were efficient administrators who knew how to govern with a firm hand without being despotic. During this age, art and education flourished and many great discoveries were made in these fields. Aryabhatta and Varahamihira, the two great mathematicians contributed much during this period in the field of Vedic Mathematics. Aryabhatta estimated the value of "Pi" to the fourth decimal place. Algebra was developed to a great extent and the concepts of zero and infinity were found. The symbols of numbers 1 to 9 were devised which was a great contribution in mathematics. These symbols came to be known as Hindu Arabic numerals later when the Arabs too adopted them.

The Gupta Age is also known for its advances in astronomy. During the reign of the Gupta rulers, astronomers and philosophers proposed the theory that the earth was not flat but round. The theory of gravity was also propounded during this time. The astronomers made a breakthrough when they found out the different planets and started to make horoscopes based on the planetary positions. The field of medicine also advanced a lot during this time and doctors used to perform operations even during that era. Since so many discoveries and advances were made in arts, medicine, literature and science during Gupta period, it has been called the Golden Age of India.

Main Rulers of Gupta Age

* Chandragupta (319 - 335 A.D): Chandragupta was a very powerful Gupta ruler who waged many battles to attain his title. He married Kumaradevi after which the Gupta dynasty came into eminence. He assumed the title of Maharajadiraja, which means king of kings.

* Samudragupta (335 - 375 A.D): Samudragupta was the son and successor of Chandragupta. Samudragupta was popularly known as the "Indian Napoleon" as he conquered many territories without making much of an effort. It is said that after Emperor Ashoka, the empire of Samudragupta was the supreme. The coins found in excavation reveal much information about his empire. He performed the Asvamedha Yagna and gained much fame and power. During his reign, many great discoveries and advancements were made in different fields like astronomy, mathematics, medicine, etc.

* Chandragupta II (375 - 414 A.D): Also known by the name of Vikramaditya, Chandragupta II was chosen by his father as the successor and the future ruler. Chandragupta II was an able ruler and a great conqueror. His conquest of the peninsula of Saurashtra via the Arabian Sea is considered to be one of his greatest military successes. With the annexation of Saurashtra and Malwa, he opened up sea ports to facilitate trade and commerce. His capital city was Pataliputra.

* Kumaragupta I (415 - 455 AD): Kumaragupta ruled for forty years and he was considered to be one of the most powerful rulers of the Gupta Period. He was known by different names such as, Shri Mahendra, Ajita Mahendra, Simha Mahendra, Asvamedha Mahendra, Mahendra Karma, etc. During his reign, the whole of India was united as one single entity. Though it was secular and people had their own thoughts and beliefs, yet they remained united and intact in any adversity. This was proved when the subjects drove out the Hunas from the kingdom after the death of Kumaragupta.

* Skandagupta (455 - 467 A.D): Most historic scripts propound that Skandagupta was the ruler after Kumaragupta, though there are some theories that also mention Purugupta, Kumaragupta - II, etc. Skandagupta was a very powerful conqueror and is considered to be at par with God Indra. His empire included the whole of North India from west to east and the peninsular regions of Gujarat.

+- Southern Kingdoms

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ORIGINS

The decline of the Gupta Empire led to a period of confusion and political flux in the northern part of India. With the exception of the reign of Harshavardhan, the entire north India witnessed a continuous struggle, as there were a number of small states, each one of them fighting with the others to gain the upper hand. However, the situation in the Deccan and south India was different from that in the north. Unlike the kingdoms that emerged in the north during this period, the kingdoms of South India were large and powerful.

A number of kingdoms emerged in the Deccan and peninsular part of India after the decline of the Satvahana dynasty, which ruled a large part of central India, including the Deccan region and Andhra Pradesh. The important kingdoms of south India between AD 500 and AD 750 were that of the Chalukyas, Pallavas, and the Pandyas. The relationship between most of the kingdoms of the south was not amicable and they constantly fought with each other.

CHALUKYAS

The Chalukyas built their kingdom on the ruins of the Vakataka dynasty who themselves had built up their state on the remains of the Satvahana kingdom. Vatapi (modern Badami) became the capital of the Chalukyan state. The famous Chalukyan ruler Pulakeshin II (AD 609-642) was a contemporary of Harshavardhan. While Harsha wanted to expand his empire to the south, Pulakeshin II wanted to move to the northern parts of the country. As the ambitions of both the rulers collided, they met in a battle on the banks of River Narmada, where Harsha was defeated.

The defeat ended the dreams of Harsha of expanding his empire southwards. On the other hand, the problems of the Chalukyas were far from over, as they had to constantly deal with two adversaries, the Rashtrakutas (from the north) and the Pallavas (from the south). The Rashtrakutas, who ruled a small stretch of area in the north Deccan region, were originally subordinate to the Chalukyas, but in the course of time they began to challenge the power of the Chalukyas. In the 8th century AD, the Rashtrakutas finally defeated the Chalukyas.

During the reign of Pulakeshin II, the Pallavas began to emerge as a powerful force to the south of the Chalukyan kingdom. The struggle between Pallavas and the Chalukyas spanned three hundred years, beginning from the 6th century AD. Pulakeshin II fought a battle against the Pallava ruler Mahendravarman and defeated him in 610 AD. However, after a few years in 642 AD, the Pallava king Narasimhavarman attacked the Chalukyan kingdom, defeated Pulakeshin II and captured Vatapi, the capital of the Chalukyas. After surviving many upheavals, the Chalukyas continued to survive until the 12th century AD, when their rule finally ended.

Vatapi, the capital of the Chalukyan kingdom, was a flourishing city. It had trade with a number of places like Persia (Iran), Arabia, and the ports on the Red Sea, along with a number of kingdoms in Southeast Asia. Pulakeshin II had diplomatic links with the rulers of Persia. The Chalukyan rulers were great patrons of art and provided financial aid for constructing temples and cave shrines through different parts of the Deccan hills. The magnificently carved sculptures in the temples and temple complex built by them are splendid examples of their artistic skills.

PALLAVAS

On the ruins of the eastern part of the kingdom of the Satvahanas, the Pallava rulers established their kingdom. The Pallava rulers originally worked as officials under the Satvahana rulers and, in the course of time, they established themselves as local rulers. Soon their kingdom spanned parts of southern Andhra Pradesh and northern Tamil Nadu. They established their capital at Kanchi (modern Kanchipuram near Chennai), which gradually became popular and famous for its temples and as center of Vedic learning.

The Pallavas fought many wars with the Chalukyas (to the northwest) and the Pandyas (to the south). Both of these states tried their best to stop the Pallavas from rising, but failed. King Mahendravarman was a contemporary of Pulakeshin II, the Chalukyan ruler. Like other rulers in south India, he was a poet and musician apart from being a good warrior.

The Pallava Empire continued to live on until the 13th century AD. However, after 9th century AD onwards, they succumbed to the combined armies of the Pandyas and the Cholas and from then on remained as a minor feudal state under the Cholas.

PANDYAS

The kingdom of the Pandyas was south to that of the Pallavas and emerged during the 6th century AD. They set up their capital at Madurai. Their kingdom was confined to the southernmost and southeastern parts of the Indian peninsula. The kingdom of the Pandyas prospered from the trade with the Romans. Their kingdom continued to exist until the 11th century AD, when the mighty Chola rulers subdued them.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE

The society of south India was also caste ridden, like that in north India. The Brahmins (priestly class) and Kshatriyas (warrior class) dominated the people belonging to the lower castes. The position of the Brahmins was on the rise as the rulers began to grant land to temples and important priests.

The peasants either tilled land belonging to the ruler or the temples and little remained with them. Religion played an important part in the life of the people in south India. Buddhism was not popular there, and followers of Jain faith were few. Hinduism held sway in these kingdoms and Vedic sacrificial rights were common. The cult of Lord Vishnu and Lord Shiva became important during this time and Kanchipuram became an important pilgrim center for the Hindu devotees. Kanchipuram, which was the capital of the Pallavas, also became an important center of Tamil and Sanskrit studies.

The temples were not the only places of worship, but they became important cultural and administrative centers where festivals were held. People also gathered in the temples to solve local problems, as the temples governed large areas of land and the people thereof.

ART

The rulers of these southern kingdoms were not only great warriors, but also were great patrons of art and architecture. The Pallava kings built a number of important temples in the seventh and the eighth centuries AD. The large rock-cut temples at Mahabalipuram are magnificent examples of the architectural prowess of the artisans of that time. Temple architecture reached its zenith in ancient India when the Kailashnath temple at Ellora was built in the 8th century. Like the Pallavas, the Chalukyas were also great builders. They built a number of temples in Aihole in the 7th century AD. The rock-cut cave temples of Badami and the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal are good examples of Chalukyan architectural skills. It is even said that the caves of Ajanta, the rock-cut temples of Ellora, and Elephanta have been built by the Chalukyas.

AFTERMATH

As trade with Rome declined after 6th century AD, towns became redundant and decayed. The beginning of the medieval period (after AD 750) saw the emergence of the great Chola Empire. The Indian subcontinent also began to witness an emergence of cultural units, having their own distinct language, culture, cuisine, etc, which later on laid the foundation of different "states". The early 8th century also saw the migration of large number of people of Iranian origin on the west coast of India, who were later on known as the Parsis.

The period between AD 500 to 750 in south India was not only a time of intense struggle, but also saw the rise in activities pertaining to art, architecture, and religion.

+- Rise of Kingdoms (600-400 Bc)

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ORIGIN

The end of the Vedic Age (1500 BC-600 BC) was followed by the rise of small kingdoms and republics in the northern parts of India and especially in the Gangetic plains of Bihar. These small states later paved the way for large empires. The entrenchment of the caste system, which divided the society be-tween the rulers and the ruled, also facilitated the rise of these states.

CAUSES

The earlier Aryan societies in India were tribal in context. Tribal chiefs, whose office was not hereditary, ruled these tribes. The criterion of selection was the number of cattle (cows in particular) a person owned. Clans often fought with each other over the control of herds of cattle. As the population of the tribes grew, their needs and aspirations also began to rise. In the course of time, the erstwhile small settlements grew into large settlements and managing large tracts of land became a problem. Soon these societies saw the rise of a ruling class, which belonged to the Kshatriya (warrior class) caste.

The strength of the early Aryan tribes was derived from the Jana (people) and not the Janapada (land). During the latter part of the Later Vedic Age (1000 BC-600 BC), all this changed with the rising influence of the Kshatriya (warrior class) caste and the Brahmin caste (priestly class), which took the reigns of the society in their hands and marginalized the other castes. The Kshatriyas and Brahmins worked in tandem and began to exploit the people belonging to the lower castes.

However, there was also a rift between the Kshatriyas on one hand and the Brahmins on the other hand. The rising influence of the Brahmins began to collide with the rule of the Kshatriyas, who formed the ruling class of each kingdom or republic. The Kshatriyas were alarmed by the rising power of the Brahmins, but they could not do much as they required the services of the Brahmins in all religious rituals and state occasions. The rise of Buddhism and Jainism during this period was a natural outcome to counter the threat of the Brahmanical Hindu order, as the founders of these religions were themselves Kshatriyas or warriors.

THE FIRST KINGDOMS

In the course of time, small settlements grew into small kingdoms and republics. A republic is that form of government where the power is held by the people or a group of elected people or elected chief. The concept of hereditary kingship is not present in republics. The main ruling class, which held the power of these republics, was the Kshatriya. Non-Kshatriyas were not a part of the ruling class in these republics. In the 6th century BC, 16 small territorial states or Mahajanapadas were formed. Of these 16 states, Magadh, Kosala, Vatsa, and Avanti were powerful. These various states constantly fought with each other for over a century to prove their supremacy.

THE KINGDOM OF MAGADH

The state of Magadh gained the upper hand over all other territorial kingdoms under the able leadership of Bimbisara (542 BC-493 BC) and his son Ajatshatru (493 BC-461 BC). The victory of Magadh over other states was predominantly a victory of the monarchical system. The rise of Magadh and the decline of the states with republican form of governance laid the foundation for hereditary system of governance.

The kingdom of Magadh was spread throughout a large area of the Gangetic plains. As this region had large deposits of iron ore, Magadh made ample use of it for making weapons and agricultural implements. Iron weapons strengthened the Magadh kingdom, while agricultural tools were used to extensively clear forests and bring more and more land under the plough. All this added to the material wealth of Magadh. It also took control of large stretches of river Ganga, which was used as a trade route. Ajatshatru was succeeded by his son Udayan (460 BC-444 BC), who established his capital in Pataliputra (present-day Patna). The first archeological evidence about large-scale architectural activities comes from this city.

CONTRIBUTION

The position of the king became important during this time. He not only protected the people but also upheld the sacred Law or Dharma. In the Republics, the people elected the ruler. However, in the kingdoms, the Brahmins (priests) sanctified the rule of the king (who was a Kshatriya) and promoted him not as an ordinary human, but God. The Brahmins endowed the king with God-like powers by performing certain religious ceremonies. Thus the people of the upper caste, the Brahmins and the Kshatriyas, usurped the power in the Kingdoms and did not allow the people of the lower caste to have their say in the affairs of the state. The king was surrounded by a group of ministers who help him govern the state. The king maintained an army and was responsible for collecting taxes.

With the rise of kingdoms and republics, more and more villages and towns emerged. The economy of the state depended on the taxes collected from the people. Towns like Ujjayini (Malwa), Bhrigukachchha (Gujarat), Tamralipti (Ganga Delta), Shravasti, Kaushambi, Ayodhya (Uttar Pradesh), Champa, Vaishali, Pataliputra, Rajagriha (Bihar), and Pratisthana (Deccan) came up during this time. Towns became craft centers and capitals of the early kingdoms and republics. Trade and commerce also helped in the rise of towns and barter system was common. River Ganga became an important trade route.

The society was strictly divided on caste lines: the Kshatriyas (warriors) were rulers, the Brahmins (priests) upheld education and religious activities, the Vaishyas (traders) carried out trade, while the Shudras were laborers and farm workers. A fifth caste-that of the untouchables-also grew, who were looked down upon as they had to perform menial jobs. The people of the upper caste asserted their authority on the others and did not allow them to rise.

AFTERMATH

After the death of Udayan, the kingdom of Magadh declined rapidly and was replaced by the Shishunaga dynasty, which took over in 413 BC. However, the Shishunaga dynasty did not last for more than 50 years and the Nanda dynasty took over. The Nandas kept a huge army and are described as the first empire builders of India. Chandragupta Maurya, who was the founder of the great Mauryan dynasty, overthrew the Nanda dynasty.

+- Rise of Jainism

2010-03-16T08:07:00.000-07:00

REGIONAL KINGDOMS

SOCIAL BACKGROUND

Like Buddhism, Jainism also originated at a time when the Later Vedic period (1000 BC-600 BC) had come to an end and there was a rise of republics and small kingdoms. The rise of the first kingdoms was marked by the emergence of the ruling class in each kingdom, which belonged to the Kshatriya or the warrior caste. While the Kshatriyas ruled these kingdoms and protected the rest of the masses, the Brahmin or the priestly caste catered to the religious and educational needs of the people, as well as sanctified the rule of the Kshatriyas.

The Kshatriyas and Brahmins in tandem asserted their authority over the people in general and the masses belonging to the lower caste in particular. The lowermost strata of the society could not question the authority of the Brahmins and the Kshatriyas. Apart from the struggle with the people belonging to the lower caste, there was a rift between the Brahmins and the Kshatriyas to take control of the reigns of the society. The Kshatriyas were alarmed by the rising power of the priests, who in turn wanted to usurp the power of the Kshatriyas. The rise of Buddhism and Jainism during this period was a natural outcome to the counter the threat of the Brahmanical Hindu order, as the founders of these religions were themselves Kshatriyas or warriors.

JAINISM

Mahavira (540 BC-467 BC) was the founder of Jainism. He founded this religion after attaining Enlightenment. The teachings of Mahavira revolve around leading a pious life, to shun all violence, and to be austere.

MAHAVIRA

Mahavira was born in 540 BC in a Kshatriya royal family in Vaishali (present-day Bihar). His father was a local ruler of a small kingdom. Mahavira left his home at the age of thirty in search of knowledge. He performed severe and rigorous penances and attained Nirvana or Enlightenment after a period of twelve years. Mahavira came to be known as the 24th Tirthankara or the great Jain spiritual leader. However, there is not much literary evidence of the previous Tirthankaras except Parsvanath, who was the 23rd Tirthankara.

PRINCIPLES OF JAINISM

Mahavira denounced the Vedas and the Brahmanical order. Jainism was opposed to the caste system and conducting of sacrifices. It preached that all its followers should refrain from hurting animal life. It also preached vegetarianism, austerity, purity of body and soul to attain liberation from the sufferings of the materialistic world. Shedding all material possessions and actions, which hurt other beings, can only attain purity. Jainism is based on three broad principles or the three jewels (Ratnas): Right Faith, Right Knowledge, and Right Action. The followers of Jain faith have to take the Five Vows:

* Non-injury to living beings

* Truth

* Non-stealing

* Non-ownership of property

* Practice of chastity

Parsvanath, who was the 23rd Tirthankara, established the first four vows, while Mahavira added the fifth vow. Mahavira had asked his followers to shed all clothes and go about naked. This meant that the Jain monks had to observe absolute chastity and abandon all the pleasures of material life. They also had to perform rigorous asceticism along with long periods of fasting, self-mortification, meditation and study of Jain scriptures.

AFTERMATH

The early teaching of Jainism passed from generation to generation through the oral tradition. A religious council was held in Pataliputra (present-day Patna) in third century BC, where all Jain teachings were recorded and compiled. This collection was later on edited in fifth century AD. The followers of Jainism slowly began to move to the southern parts of the country. The differences that rose subsequent to the migration of the monks to the south led to the division of Jainism into two sects-the Digambars or the sky-clad and the Svetambars or the white-clad. The monks belonging to the sky-clad sect are naked, while the monks belonging to the white-clad sect wear white garments. There is hardly any major difference between the two sects. Jain monks practice non-violence to the extent that they put a white cloth over their mouths to prevent them from accidentally inhaling insects.

Jainism became popular amongst the royal dynasties like the Ganga, Kadamba, Chalukya and the Rashtrakuta. The rich merchants of Gujarat have patronized this religion.

+- Rise of Buddhism

2010-03-16T07:43:00.000-07:00

SOCIAL TURMOIL

The period after the Epic Age or the Later Vedic Age (1000 BC-600 BC) was marked by the rise of numerous small republics and kingdoms. This period also saw the rise of tyranny of the upper castes and exploitation of the people belonging to the lower castes. Brahmins (priests) and Kshatriyas (rulers and warriors) did not allow the people belonging to lower castes or the Shudras and untouchables to have their say in the society. This period also saw a rift developing between the Brahmins on one hand and the Kshatriyas on the other.

The rising popularity and aspirations of the Brahmin priests began to collide with the authority of the Kshatriyas, who formed the ruling class of each kingdom or republic. The Kshatriyas were alarmed by the rising power of the Brahmins, but they could not do much as they required the services of the Brahmins in all religious rituals and state occasions. The rise of Buddhism and Jainism during this period was a natural outcome to counter the threat of the Brahmanical Hindu order, as the founders of these religions were themselves Kshatriyas or warriors.

BUDDHISM

Buddhism is one of the oldest religions in the world. Gautam Buddha (563 BC-483 BC) laid its foundation after he gained Enlightenment under a Bodhi tree at Bodhgaya. The preaching of Lord Buddha revolves around attaining salvation from worldly sufferings, universal brotherhood, peace and non-violence.

GAUTAMA BUDDHA

Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, was born in 563 BC in the ruling Kshatriya family of the Lichhavi tribe in Lumbini, in the foothills of Nepal. His father was the chief of this tribe. It was prophesized that Gautama (who was named Siddharth) would become a saint and renounce the world. Therefore, his father took all possible care to keep Gautama in a palace full of luxuries and comfort.

However, Gautama was not satisfied with his materialistic surroundings, and one day, the young prince sneaked out of the palace in his chariot to see the outside world that was still unknown to him. He was shocked to see an old person, a sick man, and a funeral procession. His charioteer told him that all this was a part of life. Then Gautam saw a saint and was perplexed by the calmness on his face. The charioteer told him that the saint had renounced all materialistic things and therefore he was content and happy. This incident left an indelible mark on the mind of the young prince, and one night he left his beautiful wife and infant son and began his journey to attain the truth of life.

When Gautama left his palace, he was twenty-nine. He wandered from place to place and did heavy penances. He even went to the stage of putting his body to rigorous punishment. Gautama attained Enlightenment while meditating under a Bodhi tree in a place called Bodhgaya (in the state of Bihar), at the age of thirty-five. After attaining Enlightenment, he came to be known as the Buddha (the Enlightened One). He preached his first sermon in a place called Sarnath, which is near Varanasi (Benaras). Gautama Buddha passed away at the age of 80 in Kushinagar near Gorakhpur (in the state of Uttar Pradesh).

TEACHINGS OF BUDDHA

Gautama Buddha discarded the Vedic Brahmanical system, which divided the society into various castes and further alienated the people from one another on the basis of their birth. He strongly opposed lengthy rituals, animal sacrifices and ceremonial worship. According to his doctrine, the existence of God is irrelevant. He laid emphasis on self-effort to attain salvation. He believed that the soul was immortal and attainment of Nirvana (salvation from materialistic life) was the chief object of each human being.

Gautam Buddha preached Four Noble Truths that form the basis of Buddhism:

* Life is full of suffering (dukkha);

* Suffering is caused by desire and craving;

* One can be free from this suffering by removing desire and craving;

* The way to eliminate desire and to get free from the cycle of birth and death is by following the Eight-Fold Path.

The Eight-Fold Path consists of: right understanding, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right awareness, and right concentration. By following the above path, one can attain Nirvana or salvation, which would free the soul from suffering and the cycle of birth and death.

AFTERMATH

During the lifetime of Gautama Buddha, a large number of people became his followers and Buddhism became the state religion of a number of states like Magadh, Kosala and Kaushambi. Great kings like Ashoka (of the Mauryan dynasty) and Kanishka (Kushan dynasty) became Buddhist and they helped spread the sermon of Buddha far and wide through their kingdoms. King Ashoka is said to have built 84,000 stupas and a large number of rock edicts and pillars throughout his empire to preach the message of Buddhism. As Buddha preached his ideas through word of mouth, there were no Buddhist religious scriptures. Later on, his preachings were compiled into Buddhist canon in Pali language, which are also known as Tripitikas. By the second century AD, Buddhism was divided into two main branches-the Mahayana (greater vehicle) and the Hinayana (lesser vehicle). In the course of time, Buddhism became a major religion and spread through most parts of East Asia.

+- The Kushan Empire

2010-02-26T08:11:00.000-08:00

ORIGIN

The age of the Mauryans (322-185 BC) in ancient India is remembered for the greatness of the empire. However, weak rulers and the subsequent weakening of the highly centralized administrative structure caused the decline of the Mauryan Empire. The post-Mauryan period from 185 BC to AD 300 saw the emergence of a number of kingdoms all over the Indian subcontinent. Some of these states were small, while others like that of the Kushans were large. This period witnessed a spurt in migrations into India, rise in foreign trade, and development of art. In short, the time scale between 1st century BC and 3rd century AD was a period of flux.

MIGRATIONS

A number of foreigners came to India in successive waves of migrations between 200 BC and AD 100. These people settled down in different parts of India. They brought with them their own distinct cultural flavor, which, after mixing with the local cultures, enriched the cultural ethos of India. The foreigners who came into India were the Bactrian Greeks (also called the 'Indo-Greeks'), the Parthians, the Sakas, and the Kushans. With the exception of the Greeks, all others came from Central Asia.

INDO-GREEKS

The Bactrian Greeks or the Indo-Greeks were the generals of Alexander, who had stayed back in Persia and parts of Central Asia. With the disintegration of the Mauryan Empire, the Indo-Greeks moved towards India and captured parts of Punjab, Kabul valley, and the province of Gandhara. They ruled their state from Gandhara or Bactria. We get to know more about the Indo-Greeks from the coins issued by them. They were the first ones in India to issue gold coins. Some of these rulers became Buddhist, while the others became Hindu, a pointer to the fact that their culture was assimilated into Indian traditions.

THE SAKAS

The Saka people settled down in the western part of India, including Gujarat and Malwa. The Saka rulers were constantly at war with the Satvahanas, who ruled central and parts of Deccan India. On the other hand, the Sakas could not expand their rule to the north, as the Kushans held them back.

THE KUSHAN EMPIRE

The Kushans originated from the Turkistan region of China. They moved towards Afghanistan in the 1st century AD and after displacing the Indo-Greeks, the Parthians and the Sakas, they established themselves in Taxila and Peshawar. In the course of time, they occupied entire Punjab and took parts of the western Gangetic plains beyond Mathura. Mathura was an important city at the time of the Kushans. Soon the Kushan Empire spread from Central Asia in the north to the plains near Mathura.

Two successive Kushan dynasties ruled the Kushan Empire. Kanishka was an important king, who belonged to the second Kushan dynasty. He extended the Kushan Empire to the north to such an extent that he came into open conflict with the Chinese armies of the Hun Empire, in Central Asia. Kanishka was a great patron of Mahayana Buddhism and during his reign, a large number of Buddhist monasteries, sculptures, and stupas were built in the Gandhara region. He also took active part in religious debates, which went on at that time. The fourth Buddhist Council was held during his reign, where many important decisions pertaining to the future of Buddhism were taken. In the fourth Buddhist Council, the division of Buddhist faith into two branches, namely Mahayana (the greater vehicle) and Hinayana (the lesser vehicle), was recognized and accepted.

KUSHAN ART

The Kushans were great patrons of art. It was under the rule of the Kushans that principles were formed for making sculptural images, which continued to influence making of sculptures ever after. During this time, Buddha was first shown in human form (earlier he was represented by symbols like lotus and footsteps). Other Hindu and Jain deities also began to be shown in human form.

Mathura and Gandhara were the two main centers of art during the time of the Kushans. The Gandhara School of Art and the Mathura School of Art developed their own distinct styles. The Gandhara School was highly influenced by Greco-Roman philosophies and mainly concentrated on depicting the image of the Buddha and the legends associated with his life, while the Mathura School drew inspiration from local folk deities and themes from day?to?day life.

GANDHARA SCHOOL

The artists and sculptors belonging to this school were highly influenced by Greek ideals of beauty and sculpture making. The Greco-Roman influence, generally known as Hellenistic, is evident in the Kushan sculptures from Gandhara. The most striking feature of this influence is the Apollo-like representation of Buddha: He is often depicted as having a youthful, almond-shaped face, with full lips, long straight nose, a masculine body (Greek influence in the study of human anatomy), etc. The spiral or curly hair and the well-defined delicate drapery covering the body are other important Hellenistic influences.

The artists from this school also made carved stone panels depicting scenes from the life of Buddha and Buddhist stories from the Jataka tales. Apart from images relating to Buddha, the sculptors also made studies of heads and icons depicting young men, women, and children. The sculptors from Gandhara generally used grayish schist stone and stucco (a mixture of lime and clay) in the later part of the period.

MATHURA SCHOOL

The artists associated with this school drew their inspiration from images and legends of folk deities, called Yakshas and Yakshis and other local gods and goddesses. The Mathura school is famous for its representation of the beauty of the female form. The style perpetuated by this school is marked by female figures, which are sensuous and voluptuous, while the men are represented as being sophisticated and urbane. The artists at Mathura succeeded in creating the ideal Indian beauty: oval faced, with ample breasts, slender waist, and broad hips.

Apart from depiction of beautiful damsels in different poses and scenes from day-to-day life, the sculptors also depicted different Hindu deities, along with stories and myths associated with them. The artists also depicted various Jain deities. Of the Jain images, the important ones are Ayagapattas or homage stone tablets, which are carved with auspicious symbols like fish, flag, jewel box, etc. The sculptors from Mathura used mottled red sandstone, which was quarried close to Agra.

IMPACT OF MIGRATIONS

The Kushan belonged to a time when India experienced new arrivals, which led to exchange of ideas between the east and the west. This period also saw the rise of trade between Indian kingdoms and the west and exchange of ideas in the field of art and culture.

+- Vedic Age, Age Early Vedic

2010-02-18T08:25:00.000-08:00

OVERVIEW

The Vedic Age (1500 BC-600 BC) was precipitated by the migration of the Aryan people from northwestern parts of the indian subcontinent. The Vedic Age saw the development of agricultural activities on a large scale in the upper Gangetic plains of India. This period is known for its nature worship and formation of Hindu religious philosophy. The Vedic Age is also termed as the age of the epics, as the great indian epics, the Ramayana and Mahabharata, and the Upanishads were written during this time, along with sacred hymns or the Vedas. The latter part of this period saw the rise of small kingdoms and the formulation of the caste system in india.

ORIGIN

Various Aryan tribes migrated to the indian subcontinent in large hoards from what is present-day Iran through the famous Khyber Pass. They rapidly spread to the area known as the Saptsindhu (the land of seven rivers), which included eastern parts of present-day Afghanistan, the Punjab (in Pakistan and also in India), and fringes of western Uttar Pradesh.

The Aryans soon mingled with the local people and adopted an agrarian way of life after settling down in small, organized communities in northwestern India. The knowledge of horse riding and a powerful cavalry was the main cause of the Aryans spreading rapidly into various regions in India, as they could easily suppress their rivals.

VEDAS

The Vedic Age gets its name from the four Vedas or religious-philosophical hymns that were composed by the Aryan people, in Sanskrit language, when they came to India. The Rig Veda is the oldest of the four Vedas and provides a vivid insight into the life of the early Vedic period. The other three collections of hymns are the Sama Veda, the Yajur Veda, and the Atharva Veda, which were written later.All the four Vedas, according to the great poet laureate Rabindranath Tagore are "a poetic testament of a people's collective reaction to the wonders and existence…a people of vigorous and unsophisticated imagination awakened at the dawn of civilization to a sense of inexhaustible mystery that is implicit in life." These hymns with their social, religious and philosophical doctrines, laid the foundation of the Hindu way of thought and Hindu religion.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE (EARLY VEDIC PERIOD)

The people of the early phase of the Vedic age were semi-nomadic and subsisted on large herds of domesticated cattle and farm animals. They moved their settlements from one pastoral area to another and lived on agrarian and dairy products obtained from cattle. As the requirements and needs of these communities grew with the gradual rise in population, they settled down as full-time farmers. They brought large tracts of fertile land of North India under the plough, driven by oxen.

These communities were generally clan or tribe-based and were governed by a tribal chief. The office of the tribal chief was not hereditary and he had to perform his duties in consultation with a group of wise men or the entire tribe. The strength of the Aryan tribes was derived from the Jana (people) and not the Janapada (land). The tribal chief and the warriors under him protected the people, while the priest and his juniors catered to the religious and ritual demands of the clansmen. Religious rituals were performed mainly to protect crops or cattle and to ensure victory in battle.

The early Vedic religion was based on nature worship. Sun, moon, wind, rain, and other natural phenomena were worshipped as gods. Prayers were organized and gods were invoked by chanting of religious hymns and mantras. Animal sacrifice was a common practice. Ritual sacrifices and prayers were offered to gods for the well being of people and cattle and to grant more wealth and to be kind to them. Cow was not considered a sacred animal, but there were frequent struggles between various tribes over the control of cows.

The early Vedic people did not have rigid differences of caste; the only demarcation was between the Aryans (white-skinned people) and the non-Aryans or the Dasa (slaves or dark-skinned people).

THE LATER VEDIC AGE

The later part of the Vedic Age is also termed as the Epic Age (1000 BC-600 BC), when the two great epics, the Ramayana and Mahabharata, and Upanishads were written. The society and polity described in these epics are not mythological; they have deep historical roots. The Ramayana and Mahabharata deal with social, political, and religious aspects of life and contain within them the broad principles of Hindu religion. The Bhagavad Gita, which is a part of the Mahabharata, deals solely with the basic concepts of Hinduism. The Upanishads are socio-philosophical treatises, dealing with the functioning and governance of society.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE (LATER VEDIC PERIOD)

The people in the Later Vedic period began to live in large self-sustained settlements, which were fortified and protected by warriors. The agrarian area controlled by these settlements also grew in size. The increase in population led the people in this period to move further down into the southern part of India, which has been mentioned in Ramayana. These people also settled into large tracts of the Ganga-Yamuna plains, after clearing large forested tracts. The later Vedic period is characterized by evolution of hereditary form of kingship, where the tribal chief's son became the future chief, and so on. The power and prestige of the priests also increased, as they were closely associated with the tribal rulers. Idol worship and the cult of sacrifice gained prominence during this time. Hindu religion, which evolved in this period, was an amalgamation of hymns, rituals, nature worship, which led to the formation of a large pantheon of gods and goddesses.

An important development of the later Vedic age was the division of the society based on work into different castes. The society had four main castes: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishya, and Shudra. The Brahmins or the priestly class led the society in conducting religious duties and educating people.

The Kshatriyas or warriors protected the clan and ruled it.The Vaishyas or merchants were petty businessmen and peasants. The Shudras or the outcasts, performed menial jobs like scavenging, fishing and removing dead bodies. The caste system was flexible at this time and people could change jobs according to their ability and interest. However, there was not much scope for Shudras for rising in the society.

AFTERMATH

The increase in population, development of the agrarian economy, increase in local trade, the caste factors, the emergence of the ruling class, and hereditary nature of kingship, etc., all led to the rise of small kingdoms and republics, out of which emerged some of the first great empires of ancient India.

CONTRIBUTION

The Vedic Age laid the foundation of Hinduism and religious practices associated with it. It also paved way for the rise of kingdoms and empires. The Vedic Age has contributed immensely in the field of Indian literature and philosophy, through its various treatises and epics.

+- Indus Valley Civilization

2010-02-18T08:08:00.000-08:00

CRADLE OF INDIAN CULTURE

India has made a major contribution to world history in the form of the Indus valley Civilization. This civilization originated in the fertile plains of the Indus River (also Sindhu), in the third and fourth millennium BC. The Indus Valley Civilization, or the Harappan Culture, was the contemporary of the ancient civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia, and is acknowledged the third major civilization in the history of humankind. Archaeological excavations have revealed that the people of this culture enjoyed a life of luxury and refinement, with a highly evolved civic system and prosperous trade links.

CITIES

Harappa and Mohenjodaro (present-day Pakistan), the two cities excavated first, appear to have functioned as twin capitals of this civilization. Later excavations revealed smaller cities such as Kot Diji in Sindh, Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Ropar in Punjab, and Lothal in Gujarat. Harappa and Mohenjodaro show a surprising similarity despite being 350 miles apart. Both cities consist of an acropolis and a lower city, each fortified separately. The acropolis contains large assembly halls, granaries, and edifices for religious purposes. It was thus the administrative and religious nerve center of the cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. Some of the cities had large public baths built on highly scientific lines. These baths were generally used for religious bathing.

The lower cities are divided into rectangles by broad streets. All the houses were connected directly to the well-planned drainage system of covered drains and soak pits. The grid layout of the cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, along with their advanced drainage system, has made them the first truly planned cities in the world. Each house had a courtyard, private wells, and bathrooms and was built with well-baked standardized bricks.

MATERIAL DEVELOPMENT

People of the Harappan Culture appear to have known the use of the potter's wheel. Archaeological excavations in the various cities have revealed a hoard of pottery and potshards, which are decorated with geometric patterns. These items reflect the aesthetic sense of this ancient culture. These people were fond of ornamentation as proved by a large number of necklaces, anklets, rings, earrings, amulets, beads, and nose studs that have been recovered from various sites. The artisans of the Indus Valley Civilization made exquisite jewelry, using a variety of material like gold, silver, copper, stone, and bone.

The most mystifying find from the Harappan Culture sites is the large number of well-carved seals made of steatite. The seals bear representation of animals, figures, and symbols of the religious life of the people accompanied by a pictorial script that has yet to be deciphered. One particular seal bears an image of a male god who has been identified as the prototype of God Shiva, as shown seated in a yogic posture surrounded by animals. The seals may have been used for trade as some seals have been found in numerous Mesopotamian sites.

The people of the Harappan culture appear to have used both cotton and woolen textiles. A number of small figurines excavated from various sites show that they are clad in some sort of garment. Skeletal remains from the different sites prove that animals like the buffalo, sheep, elephant, bull, and camel were domesticated. People had the time and leisure to pursue fine arts-the excellent carvings on the seals and some exquisite stone sculptures from Harappa show the high degree of development. Of great importance is the copper figurine of the Dancing Girl. This figurine not only shows the expertise in metalworking of the Harappan people but also reflects the repertoire of the ornaments bedecking this figurine. Small toys like carts harnessed with oxen are testimony to the expertise of the artisans.

DECLINE

The Harappan culture declined suddenly between 1800-1700 BC and its end is as puzzling as its beginning. How and why did this first great empire of South Asia decay into oblivion? One cannot say with certainty whether massacres by marauders or the inbuilt decay that had set in caused the decline of this powerful civilization. Another school of thought relates the demise of the Indus valley civilization to have been brought about by a major tectonic shift that caused continuous floods of this area.

Research has proved that the decline of the glorious Harappan culture was due to a variety of factors, both manmade and natural. In the beginning of the second millennium BC, there were great changes in the environmental conditions-the climate changed and large parts of the plains were flooded when tectonic changes threw up a dam in the lower Indus Valley. There were also other socio-economic factors that contributed to the decline. Agricultural production declined with the changes in the climate and the big cities could no longer sustain themselves. People from the major centers perhaps left for the smaller outposts and slowly riveted back to village life when they could no longer maintain the prerequisites of an urban existence.

IMPORTANCE

Even today, excavations at Harappa throw up new facts, not just about the great civilization but also about mankind's evolution. The people of the Indus Valley Civilization are a link to the past, a window into the life and history of our ancestors. Without doubt, the people of the Harappan Culture led a life of sophistication. "The land where the first civilized man trod on earth"-this is how the great poet laureate Rabindra Nath Tagore has described the fertile plains of Punjab, the breeding grounds of this great civilization.

+- Mauryan Kings Bindusara

2010-02-13T07:55:00.000-08:00

Bindusara was the second Mauryan emperor (Born c. 320 BC, ruled: 298 - c.272 BC) after Chandragupta MauryaChandragupta Maurya

Chandragupta Maurya , sometimes known simply as Chandragupta , was the founder of the Maurya Empire. Chandragupta succeeded in bringing together most of the Indian subcontinent. As a result, Chandragupta is considered the first unifier of India and its first genuine emperor...

. During his reign, the empire expanded southwards. He had two sons, Sumana and AshokaAshoka

Ashoka , popularly known as Ashoka the Great, was an Indian emperor of the Maurya Dynasty who ruled almost all of the Indian subcontinent from 269 BC to 232 BC. One of India's greatest emperors, Ashoka reigned over most of present-day India after a number of military conquests...

, who were the viceroys of Taxila and Ujjain. The Greeks Ancient Greece

Ancient Greece is the civilisation belonging to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca. 1100 BC and the Dorian invasion, to 146 BC and the Roman conquest of Greece after the Battle of Corinth. It is generally considered to be the seminal culture which provided the...

called him Amitrochates or Allitrochades - the Greek transliteration for the Sanskrit

Sanskrit is a historical Indo-Aryan language, one of the liturgical languages of Hinduism and Buddhism, and one of the 22 official languages of India. It is also declared as a classical language by the government of India....

word 'Amitraghata' (Slayer of enemies). He was also called 'Ajathasetru' (Man having no enemies) in Sanskrit.

Life

The son of Chandragupta, by a woman named Durdhara, Bindusara inherited a large empire that consisted of what is now, Northern, Central and Eastern parts of India

India, officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal...

along with parts of Afghanistan

The Islamic Republic of Afghanistan is a landlocked country in south central Asia. It is variously described as being located within Central Asia, South Asia, or the Middle East...

and BaluchistanBalochistan (region)

Balochistan or Baluchistan is an arid region located in the Iranian Plateau in Southwest Asia and South Asia, between Pakistan, Iran, and Afghanistan. The area is named after the numerous Baloch tribes, an Iranian people, who moved into the area from the west around A.D. 1000...

. Bindusara extended this empire to the southern part of India, as far as what is now known as Karnataka

Karnataka is a state in the southern part of India. It was created on November 1, 1956, with the passing of the States Reorganisation Act...

. He brought sixteen states under the Mauryan Empire and thus conquered almost all of the Indian peninsula (he is said to have conquered the 'land between the two seas' - the peninsular region between the Bay of BengalBay of Bengal

The Bay of Bengal IPA:ˈbɒŋɡopoʃɑːˈgoɽ), the largest bay of the world, forms the northeastern part of the Indian Ocean. It resembles a triangle in shape, and is bordered by Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal to the north , India and Sri Lanka to the west and Myanmar and the Andaman and...

and the Arabian SeaArabian Sea

The Arabian Sea is a region of the Indian Ocean bounded on the east by India, on the north by Pakistan and Iran, on the west by Arabian Peninsula, on the south, approximately, by a line between Cape Guardafui, the north-east point of Somalia, Socotra, Kanyakumari in India, and the western coast...

). Bindusara didn't conquer the friendly Dravidian kingdoms of the Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras. Apart from these southern states, Kalinga (India)

Kalinga was an early kingdom in central-eastern India, which comprised most of the modern state of Odissa / Utkal, as well as some northern areas of the bordering state of Andhra Pradesh...

(the modern Orissa) was the only kingdom in India that didn't form the part of Bindusara's empire. It was later conquered by his son Ashoka

, who served as the viceroy of Ujjaini during his father's reign.

Bindusara's life has not been documented as well as his father Chandragupta or his son Ashoka. The philosopher Chanakya

Chanakya was an adviser and a prime minister to the first Maurya Emperor Chandragupta , and was the chief architect of his rise to power. Kautilya and Vishnugupta, the names by which the ancient Indian political treatise called the Arthaśāstra identifies its author, are traditionally identified...

served as prime minister during his reign. During his rule, the citizens of Taxila

Taxila is an important archaeological site in the Punjab province of Pakistan.It dates back to the Ancient Indian period and contains the ruins of the Gandhāran city of Takshashila an important Vedic/Hindu and Buddhist centre of learning from the 6th century BCEto the 5th century CE...

revolted twice. The reason for the first revolt was the maladministrationMaladministration

Maladministration is a political term which describes the actions of a government body which can be seen as causing an injustice.The law in the United Kingdom says Ombudsman must investigate ‘maladministration’...

of Suseema, his eldest son. The reason for the second revolt is unknown, but it could not be suppressed by Bindusara due to his untimely death, but was later crushed by Ashoka.

Ambassadors from Seleucid Empire

The Seleucid Empire was a Hellenistic empire, i.e. a successor state of Alexander the Great's empire. The Seleucid Empire was centered in the near East and at the height of its power included central Anatolia, the Levant, Mesopotamia, Persia, today's Turkmenistan, Pamir and parts of Pakistan...

(such as Deimachus) and Egypt

Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Western Asia...

visited his courts. He maintained good relations with the Hellenic World. Unlike his father Chandragupta (who was a Jain), he believed in the Ajivika

Ājīvika was an ancient philosophical and ascetic movement of the Indian subcontinent. The Ajivikas were contemporaries of the early Buddhists and historical Jains; the Ajivika movement may have preceded both of these groups. The Ajivikas may have been a more loosely organized group of wandering...

(a Hindu sect that preached equality for all people).

Bindusara died in 272 BC (some records say 268 BC) and was succeeded by his son Ashoka the Great. Bindusara is known as "The Son of a Father and the Father of a Son" because he was the son of a great father Chandragupta MauryaChandragupta Maurya

and father of a great son Ashoka

, the Great.

Bindusara's Empire

Bindusara extended his empire further as far as south Mysore

Mysore is the second-largest city in the state of Karnataka, India. It is the headquarters of the Mysore district and the Mysore division and lies about southwest of Bangalore, the capital of Karnataka. The name Mysore is an anglicised version of Mahishūru, which means the abode of Mahisha...

. He conquered sixteen states and extended the empire from sea to sea. The empire included the whole of India

except the region of Kalinga (India)

Kalinga was an early kingdom in central-eastern India, which comprised most of the modern state of Odissa / Utkal, as well as some northern areas of the bordering state of Andhra Pradesh...

(modern Orissa) and the Dravidian kingdoms of the south. The Dravidians kingdoms of the Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras were very friendly with the Mauryan empire and so the king felt no need to conquer them. However, Kalinga was not friendly with the Mauryans and so a war was fought between the people of Kalinga and Mauryans led by Bindusara's son Ashoka.

Early Tamil poetSangam literature

Sangam literature refers to a body of classical Tamil literature created between the years c. 600 BCE to 300 CE. This collection contains 2381 poems composed by 473 poets, some 102 of whom remain anonymous The period during which these poems were composed is commonly referred to as the Sangam...

s speak of Mauryan chariotChariot

The chariot is the earliest and simplest type of carriage, used in both peace and war as the chief vehicle of many ancient peoples. Chariots were built in Mesopotamia by the Mesopotamians as early as 3000 BC and in China during the 2nd millennium BC. The original chariot was a fast, light, open,...

s thundering across the land, their white pennants brilliant in the sunshine. At the time of Bindusara's death in 272 BC, practically the entire sub-continent had come under Mauryan suzerainty. One area alone remained hostile and unconquered, Kalinga, on the east coast (modern Orissa). This was left to Bindusara's son Ashok, who campaigned successfully against Kalinga. Bindusara campaigned in the Deccan, extending the Mauryan empire in the peninsula to as far as Mysore. He is said to have conquered 'the land between the two seas', presumably the Arabian sea and the Bay of Bengal.

Administration during Bindusara's Reign

Bindusara maintained good relations with Seleucus Nicator and the emperors regularly exchanged ambassadors and presents. He also maintained the friendly relations with the Hellenic West established by his father. Ambassadors from Syria and Egypt lived at Bindusara's court. He preferred the AjivikaAjivika

philosophy rather than Jainism

Jainism is an ancient dharmic religion from India that prescribes a path of non-violence for all forms of living beings in this world. Its philosophy and practice relies mainly on self-effort in progressing the soul on the spiritual ladder to divine consciousness...

Apparently he was a man of wide interest and taste, since tradition had it that he asked Antiochus I to send him some sweet wineWine

Wine is an alcoholic beverage typically made of fermented grape juice. The natural chemical balance of grapes is such that they can ferment without the addition of sugars, acids, enzymes or other nutrients. Wine is produced by fermenting crushed grapes using various types of yeast. Yeast consumes...

, dried figs

FIGS is an acronym for French, Italian, German, Spanish. These are usually the first four languages chosen to localize products into when a company enters the European market....

and a sophist

+- Mughal Emperor Humayun (1530-1556)

2010-02-13T06:54:00.000-08:00

Babur's eldest son and successor, Humayun, was 22 years old when his father passed away. Humayun lacked the experience and the tough fiber necessary to consolidate a new dynasty. Thus, the first decade of his rule brought a steady erosion of Mughal authority in northern India. In particular, Humayun had to deal with the determined hostility of the Afghans who were still allied with the dispossessed Lodi regime.

Humayun was defeated and dislodged by insurrections of nobles from the old Lodi regime. In 1540, the Mughal domain came under the control of one of those nobles, Farid Khan Sur, who assumed the regional name of Shir Shah Sur. Humayun would spend the next 15 years in exile in Sind, Iran, and then Afghanistan. During this exile, Humayun's Persian wife, Hamida Begum, a native of Turbat-I Shaykh Jam in Khurasan, gave birth to the future emperor Akbar.

According to Blair and Bloom, Shir Shah Sur was one of the finest rulers India had ever known. He introduced important fiscal and monetary reforms which were incorporated into the Mughal system of administration.

Hambly writes that Shir Shah's Delhi, once again the capital of a great empire, was bounded on the east by the Jumna and extended northwards as far as Kotla Firuz Shah. Its southern limit, Hambly continues, must have been the enormous citadel known as the Purana Qala beyond which gardens stretched as far as the Nizamuddin area, the traditional burial-ground of Muslim nobility. Shir Shah Sur, with his imperial vision and ability to translate that vision into constructive action, rates a place in the front ranks of India's statesmen.

After Shir Shah's death, the kingdom survived for about nine years in the hands of his son, Islam Shah. But Islam Shah's unconciliatory nature alienated many Afghan chieftains. Eventually, the squabbling for succession among Shir Shah's followers allowed Humayun and the Mughals to return to power in 1555.

Iran's Shah Tahmasb (1524-76) had provided Humayun with the necessary troops to recapture Kandahar and then Kabul. But less than a year after regaining power, Humayun died unexpectedly at the age of 48 when he fell down the steps of his library in his haste to obey the muezzin's call to prayer.

Humayun's most noted achievement was in the sphere of painting. His devotion to the early Safavid School, developed during his stay in Iran, led him to recruit Persian painters of merit to accompany him back to India. These artists, wrties Hambly, laid the foundation of the Mughal style which emerged from its Persian chrysalis as an indigenous achievement in which Indian elements blended harmoniously with the traditions of Iran and Central Asia.

Humayun constructed a citadel at Delhi. Named Din-Panah (Refuge of Religion), this structure is thought to have been destroyed during the reign of Shir Shah Sur. The most celebrated building associated with Humayun is his tomb at Delhi, write Blair and Bloom. Humayun's mausoleum is a devotion of Hamida Begum, his widow, who supervised its construction during the reign of their son Akbar.

According to Blair and Bloom, Humayun's tomb marked the beginnings of a major development in the history of Indo-Islamic architecture. The tomb is set to the east of the shrine of Nizam al-Din Awliya (one of India's most revered Sufi saints) and in the center of a large garden that is 348 meters square. The garden is divided into 36 squares by cross-axially arranged water channels and pathways. Blair and Bloom write that the flat surfaces, the restrained combination of red stone and white marble in the flat panels, and the massive size of the tomb create an impression of sobriety.

On the interior of the tomb, continue Blair and Bloom, the central space contains Humayun's cenotaph; two stories of octagonal chambers containing cenotaphs for various members of Humayun's family fill the corners. Blair and Bloom add that this type of plan, often called hasht bihisht (Eight Paradise), is known to have been used in Timurid Iran. Contemporary historians believe the tomb was designed by Mirak Mirza Ghiyath, an architect of Iranian descent who had worked in Heart, Bukhara, and India before undertaking this project, note Blair and Bloom.

Humayun's tomb fits into the Iranian tradition of imperial mausoleums -- a tradition that can be seen, for example, in Uljayatu's tomb at Sultaniyya and Timur's at Samarqand. Brend writes that it is obvious that the taste for Timurid architecture in the mid-16th century shows the Mughals attempt to connect their line in India with their forebears in Iran through the use of forms identified with the Timurid.

Humayun's tomb :

Humayun inherited the Mughal dynasty when his father Babur died in 1530. His reign got off to a good start, but his addiction to luxury at the palaces at Agra left the door open for ambitious men to plot behind his back. Ten years into his reign, Humayun was overthrown by the opportunist Sher Shah, who took advantage of Afghan tribesmen to force Humayun into exile in Iran, which was then ruled by the Safavid dynasty.

Sher Shah died in 1545 and his sucessor was never able to assert the authority over the Afghani tribes that Sher Shah had enjoyed. As the remnants of the Shah's regime unraveled, Humayun mounted a restoration army and marched into Delhi in 1555. The aged Humayun had little time to celebrate, however, for barely six months later he died from a fall in his library at Sher Mandai.

Humayun's tomb is believed to have been designed by his widow. Its plan, based on the description of Islamic paradise gardens, is known to have inspired the Taj Mahal and many later Mughal tombs. This type of garden is known as a charbagh and is based on a grid (see below).

In 1857, the tomb was used as shelter by Bahadur Shah Zafar and his three princes during the first war of Independence.

+- Mughal Emperor Jahangir (1569-1627)

2010-02-05T08:54:00.000-08:00

During his 50-year reign, Akbar accumulated much wealth from the political and commercial centers in northern India. His immediate successors, Jahangir and Shah Jahan, were able to surround themselves with a splendor and opulence unequaled by any other Muslim dynasty.

From the beginning, Jahangir's life was overshadowed by the achievements of his father Akbar. Jahangir grew up resentful of his masterful parents and bitterly jealous of his father's long-established coterie of advisers who must have interfered between father and son. Hambly writes that despite Jahangir's acute intelligence, the Mughal ruler was generally indifferent to the larger interests of the empire. Moreover, he lacked any obvious inclination for warfare and was bored by the humdrum details of day-to-day administration. Jahangir was self-indulgent and sensual with a streak of cruelty that emanated from a weak personality.

Despite Jahangir's disinterest in expansion, the imperial frontiers continued to move forward -- in Bengal, Mewar and Ahamadnagar. The only major reversal to the expansion came in 1622 when Shah Abbas, the Safavid ruler of Iran, captured Kandahar with impunity.

Jahangir lived under the spell of personalities that were more colorful than his own; the most influential of these personalities was the beautiful Nur Jahan whom he married in 1611. Nur Jahan then became the real ruler of the empire until the death of her husband Jahangir.

Nur Jahan's Persian grandfather was in the service of Shah Tahmasb; the grandfather died in Yazd laden with honors. His heirs, however, soon fell upon hard times, and his son, Mirza Ghiyas al-Din Muhammad, was forced to set out for India with his family. In 1577, during the trip to India, his wife gave birth at Kandahar to a eautiful daughter, Mihr al-Nisa (Sun of Women). Later, Jahangir would give Mihr al-Nisa the name of Nur Mahal (Light of the Palace) which he later expanded to Nur Jahan (Light of the World).

Mihr al-Nisa's father, Mirza Ghiyas al-Din Muhammad, made his way to Akbar's court at Fatehpur Sikri and rose rapidly in the imperial hierarchy. He held many important positions including that of diwan of Kabul; he ended his days with the rank of commander and the proud title of Itimad al-Dawleh (Pillar of the State). His son, Asaf Khan, was an urbane and affable courtier and a sharp fiscal administrator who secured the favor of both Jahangir and Shah Jahan, writes Hambly.

The son attained the highest provincial governorships and finally the rank of commander-in-chief. Hambly notes that in 1612, a year after Mihr al-Nisa's marriage to Jahangir, Asaf Khan arranged for his daughter, Arjumand Banu Begum, to marry Prince Khurram, one of Jahangir's younger sons. Fifteen years later, Khurram would ascend to the throne as the emperor Shah Jahan. Nur Jahan's niece would win immortality as Mumtaz Mahal, the woman in whose honor the Taj Mahal was built.

Jahangir's wife, Nur Jahan, was an excellent conversationalist, a fine judge of Persian poetry and a poet herself. Her accomplishments made her an irresistible companion for the emperor. Nur Jahan was a patron of painting and architecture whose interests also extended to the decoration of rooms as well as the designing of ornaments, brocades, rugs and dresses. The fashions in women's clothing that she adopted were still in vogue at the end of the 16th century.

Nur Jahan was Jahangir's favorite companion. She shared his interests in fine artistic objects and precious stones. Nur Jahan also assisted Jahangir in the layout and design of Persian gardens like the beautiful Shalimar-Bagh on the Dal Lake in Kashmir.

Jahangir's love of flowers and animals is reflected in the numerous miniatures painted by artists who shared their master's keen eye for the beauties of wild nature. Sir Thomas Roe, the ambassador of James I of England, was amazed at Jahangir's knowledge and discriminating taste where pictures were concerned.

Jahangir was not particularly interested in architecture, but one of the buildings that dates from his reign ranks among the finest achievements of the Mughal spirit. This is the tomb of Mirza Ghiyath Beg, usually known by his title I'timad ad-Dawlah (Pillar of the State), built at Agra by Nur Jahan (Light of the World) for her father who died in 1622. The tomb stands in a quadripartite garden. The enclosure walls, a guest-house on the river Yamuna and the podium are made of traditional red sandstone inlaid with colored marble.

The tomb of I'timad ad-Dawlah is the first structure in India in which white marble replaces red sandstone as the ground for polychrome pietra dura inlay. The tomb, measuring about 22 yards on a side, contains a central tomb chamber surrounded by square and rectangular rooms decorated with carved painted plaster in the Persianate style. The broad octagonal towers, like minarets, mark the corners, and a small pavilion or upper story rises above the roof. Three arched openings on each side provide shadows which contrast with the gleaming surface, while the cornice and eaves mark strong horizontal lines.

The modest, jewel-like building is remarkable for its delicate but exuberant decoration and warm tonality. The traditional technique of inlay has changed; opus sectile, marble intarsia of various colors, has been replaced by pietra dura, in which hard and rare stones such as lapis, onyx, jasper, topaz, carnelian and agate were embedded in the marble.

Traditional geometric designs and arabesques are combined with representational motifs of drinking cups, vases with flowers, cypress trees and visual descriptions of Paradise from the Holy Qur'an. The intricate inlay in yellow, brown, gray and black, contrasting with the smooth white marble, prefigures the later phase of white marble garnished with gold and precious stones that marks the most sumptuous buildings constructed under later Mughal patronage.

+- Mughal Emperor Babar (1483-1530)

2010-02-05T08:37:00.000-08:00

Babar was soldier of fortune, founder of the Mughal dynasty in India, diarist and poet, descending in the fifth generation from Timur, was born on 14 February 1483. In June 1494, he succeeded his father, 'Umar Shaik , as ruler of Farghana, whose revenues supported no more than a few hundred cavalry. With this force of helmeted, mailclad warriors, Babar began his career of conquest. He joined in the family struggle for power, thrice winning and thrice losing Samarkand, alternately master of a kingdom or a wanderer through the hills. In 1504, he made himself master of Kabul and so came in touch with India whose wealth was a standing temptation. In 1517 and again in 1519, he swept down the Afghan plateau into the plains of India. He entered the Punjab in 1523 on the invitation of Daulat Khan Lodhi, the governor of the province, and 'Alam Khan, an uncle of Ibrahim Lodhi, the Delhi Sultan. But, wars in his home country however, compelled Babar to return so that his final invasion was not begun until November 1525.

Babar's army of 12,000 men was mostly undisciplined group of men who wanted to loot the riches of India. These 12,000 men, a tiny army with which to attempt the conquest of Ibrahim Lodhi's realm, first devasted Punjab. Guru Nanak in his famous epic named "Babarvani" describes the atrocities of Babar and his men in Punjab.

Babarvani (Babar's command or sway) is how the four hymns by Guru Nanak alluding to the invasions by Babar (1483-1530), are collectively known in Sikh literature. The name is derived from the use of the term in one of these hymns "Babarvani phiri gal kuiru na rot khai -Babar's command or sway has spread; even the princes go without food" (GG, 417). Three of these hymns are in Asa measure at pages 360 and 417-18 of the standard recension of Guru Granth Sahib and the fourth is in Tilang measure on pages 722-23.

In his first invasion, Babar came as far as Peshawar. The following year he crossed the Indus and, conquering Sialkot without resistance, marched on Saidpur (now Eminabad, 15 km southeast of Gujranwala in Pakistan) which suffered the worst fury of the invading host. The town was taken by assault, the garrison put to the sword and the inhabitants carried into captivity. During his next invasion in 1524, Babar ransacked Lahore. His final invasion was launched during the winter of 1525-26 and he became master of Delhi after his Victory at Panipat on 21 April 1526.

Guru Nanak was an eye-witness to the havoc created during these invasions. Janam Sakhis mention that he himself was taken captive at Saidpur. A little of his, outside of Babarwani hymns, indicates that he may have been present in Lahore when the city was given up to plunder. In six pithy words this line conveys, "For a pahar and a quarter, i.e. for nearly four hours, the city of Lahore remained subject to death and fury" (GG,1412). The mention in one of the Babalvani hymns of the use of guns by the Mughals against the Afghan defence relying mainly upon their war - elephants may well be a reference to the historic battle of Panipat which sealed the fate of the Afghan king, Ibrahim Lodhi.

The Sikh tradition strongly subscribes to a meeting in 1520 between Guru Nanak and Babar during the latter's invasion of Saidpur, now called Eminabad, in Gujranwala district of Pakistan. The town was taken by assault, the garrison put to the sword and the inhabitants carried into captivity. According to the Puratan Janam Sakhi, Guru Nanak and Mardana, also among the captives, were ordered to be taken to prison as slaves. The Guru was given a load to carry and Mardana a horse to lead. But Mir Khan, says the Janam Sakhi, saw that the Guru's bundle was carried without any support and Mardana's horse followed him without the reins. He reported this to Sultan Babar who remarked, "If there was such a holy man here, the town should not have been destroyed." The Janam Sakhi continues, "Babar kissed his (Guru Nanak's) feet. He said, 'On the face of this fair one sees God himself.' Then all the people, Hindus and Musalmans, began to make their salutations. The king spoke again, 'O dervish, accept something'. The Guru answered, 'I take nothing, but you must release all the prisoners of Saidpur and restore their property to them'. King Babar ordered, 'Those who are in detention be released and their property be returned to them'. All the prisoners of Saidpur were set at liberty"

Babarvani hymns are not a narrative of historical events like Guru Gobind Singh's Bachitra Natak, nor are they an indictment of Babar as his Zafarnamah was that of Aurangzab. They are the outpourings of a compassionate soul touched by scenes of human misery and by the cruelty perpetrated by the invaders. The sufferings of the people are rendered here in accents of intense power and protest. The events are placed in the larger social and historical perspective decline in moral standards must lead to chaos. A corrupt political system must end in dissolution. Lure of power divides men and violence unresisted tends to flourish It could not be wished away by magic or sorcery Guru Nanak reiterated his faith in the Almighty and in His justice. Yet so acute was his realization of the distress of the people that he could not resist making the complaint: "When there was such suffering, such killing, such shrieking in pain, did not Thou, O God, feel pity? Creator, Thou art the same for all!"

The people for Guru Nanak were the people as a whole, the Hindus and the Muslims, the high-caste and the low-caste, soldiers and civilians, men and women. These hymns are remarkable for their moral structurs and poetical eloquence. Nowhere else in contemporary literature are the issues in medieval Indian situation comprehended with such clarity or presented in tones of greater urgency. In spite of his destructive role Babar is seen by Guru Nanak to have been an unwitting instrument of the divine Will. Because the Lodhi's had violated God's laws, they had to pay the penalty. Babar descended from Kabul as God's chosen agent, demonstrating the absolute authority of God and the retribution which must follow defiance of His laws. Guru Nanak's commentary on the events which he actually witnessed thus becomes a part of the same universal message. God is absolute and no man may disobey. His commands with impunity. Obey Him and receive freedom. Disobey him and the result must inevitably be retribution, a dire reckoning which brings suffering in this present life and continued transmigration in the hereafter. The hymn rendered in free English verse reads:

Lord, Thou takest Khurasan under Thy wing,

but yielded India to the invader's wrath.

Yet thou takest no blame;

And sendest the Mughal as the messenger of death.

When there was such suffering, killing,

such shrieking in pain,

Didst not Thou, O God, feel pity ?

The fourth Babarvani hymn is probably addressed to Bhal Lalo, one of Guru Nanak's devotees living at Saidpur itself. It ends on a prophetic note, alluding perhaps to the rise of Sher Khan, an Afghan of Sur clan, who had already captured Bengal and Bihar, defeated Babar's son and successor, Humayun, at Chausa on the Ganga in June 1539 (during the lifetime of Guru Nanak), and who finally drove the Mughal king out of India in the following year. The hymn in Tilang measure is, like the other three, an expression of Guru Nanak's feeling of distress at the moral degradation of the people at the imposition by the mighty. It is a statement also of his belief in God's justice and in the ultimate victory of good over evil. In an English rendering:

As descendeth the Lord's word to me, so do I deliver

it unto you, O Lalo:

[Babar] leading a wedding-array of sin

hath descended from Kabul and

demandeth by force the bride, O Lalo.

decency and righteousness have vanished,

and falsehood struts abroad, O

Lalo.

Gone are the days of Qazis and Brahmans,

Satan now conducts the nuptials, O Lalo.

The Muslim women recite the Qur'an and

in distress remember their God, O Lalo.

Similar is the fate of Hindu women of

castes high and low, O Lalo.

They sing paeans of blood, O Nanak,

and by blood, not saffron, ointment is made,

O Lalo.

In this city of corpses, Nanak

proclaimeth God's praises, and uttereth

this true saying:

The Lord who created men and put them

to their tasks watcheth them from

His seclusion.

True is that Lord, true His verdict,

and true is the justice He dealeth.

As her body's vesture is torn to shreds,

India shall remember my words.

In seventy-eight they come, in ninety

seven shall depart; another man of

destiny shall arise.

Nanak pronounceth words of truth,

Truth he uttereth; truth the time

calls for."

The words Seventy-eight and ninetyseven" in the penultimate line are interpreted as 1578 and 1597 of the Indian calendar, corresponding respectively with 1521 and 1540 which are the dates of Babar's invasion and Humayun's dethronement by Sher Khan/Shah. Though Babar's Tuzk, or Memoirs, a work of high literary quality, gives many interesting details of the campaigns and the events he was involved in and also describes the Indian life and customs very minutely there is no mention in these recollections that he met Guru Nanak. Nevertheless, the possibility of such a meeting having taken place cannot be ruled out. There are references in Guru Nanak's bans to Babars's invasions. An open tragedy like the one that struck Saidpur moved him profoundly and he described the sorrows of Indians-Hindus and Muslims alike-in words of intense power and suffering. Babar's army, in the words of Guru Nanak, was "the bridal procession of sin." In fact, Indian literature of that period records no more virile protest against the invading hordes than do Guru Nanak's four hymns of Babarvani in the Guru Granth Sahib.

Babar died on 26 December 1530 at Agra. Several years later his body was moved to its present grave in one of the gardens of Kabul.

Babar's ivasion and occupation of India impacted the life in India in all aspects. His generals forced people to be converted to Islam, his Zamindar's and other influential people bestowed lands and property on the newly converted Muslims. Babar himself became a Ghazi which in Islamic terminology is a positive epitecht and it means "a muslim who has killed a non-muslim", such a person is guaranteed heaven with "beautiful women, wine and rivers of honey." Another thing to note is that Babar destroyed several Hindu temples all over Punjab, and UP. Reason being is because founder of islam, Mohammad had done the same thing when he attacked Meeca and destroyed its temple and idolized Kaba. He made a pathway to kaaba using destroyed debree of the old temple, this tradition was continued by all the Mughal kings who invaded Indian, including Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shahjahan and Aurungzeb, they destroyed temples and converted them to mosques, even though it is not allowed in islam as muslims claim but Mohammad himself had done it so they followed their leader.

The clash between Sikh and Islamic culture was inevitable and resulted in first small hostilities between Guru's followers starting with the Sixth Guru Guru Hargobind and later into full scale with Tenth Guru Guru Gobind Singh.

+- Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb (1618-1707)

2010-02-02T07:57:00.000-08:00

Prelude to Aurangzeb's Reign

Shah Jahan was a bigoted Muslim and a confirmed nepotist. He provided for the imperial princes before anyone else in the matter of administrative and judicial postings regardless of age, capability and talent. He also started the practice of conferring the cream of the offices on each prince; like Dara Shikoh was made the governor of Punjab and Multan, Aurangzeb was appointed governor of all the four provinces of the Deccan and so on. This might have been just a clever way to keep them occupied, but that was not how the nobility viewed it. The nobles saw this, and rightfully so, as an obstacle in the path of their promotions.

However, the end of Shah Jahan's reign did not live up to the beginning; it saw one of the messiest battles of succession (also see History in Delhi) that Indian history ever witnessed. In September 1657, Shah Jahan fell ill. The prognosis was so unoptimistic that the rumors had it that the emperor was dead. This was enough to spark off intense intrigue in the court. All the four claimants to Shah Jahan's throne were the children of the same mother – although one would never have guessed that from their temperaments and their determination to make it to the throne.

In 1657, Dara Shikoh was 43, Shah Shuja 41, Aurangzeb 39 and Murad 33. All of them were governors of various provinces: Dara was the governor of Punjab, Murad of Gujrat, Aurangzeb of the Deccan and Shah Shuja of Bengal. Two of them emerged clear frontrunners in the battle for the throne quite early: Dara Shikoh and Aurangzeb.

Aurangzeb was with doubt the ablest of Shah Jahan's sons and a clear favorite for the throne. His credentials both in battle and administration were legendary. He was also an orthodox Muslim of the oldest school possible, which made him a hot favorite with the clergy.

As stated earlier, the actual events, which unfolded around Shah Jahan’s illness, were confused. Aiding and abetting the confusion with every word and gesture, for his own aims and purposes, was the favorite son Dara Shikoh. Aurangzeb did not waste much time. Acting on Dara Shikoh's behalf, Aurangzeb along with Murad met the Mughal armies twice in battle, and beat them each time while moving on relentlessly towards Agra, where Shah Jahan was convalescing.

When Shah Jahan heard of Aurangzeb's advance, he expressed a wish to meet Aurangzeb and talk to him. It was the emperor's belief that upon seeing him alive, his son would turn on his heels and go back. Clearly the old king had been ailing only in body and not in mind, for certainly the appearance of Shah Jahan himself would have laid to rest the whole issue of succession. Even the most ardent of Aurangzeb's supporters would have had second thoughts about defying the great Mughal's authority openly.

However, Dara Shikoh lacked the potentate's easy confidence in his son. He was not so convinced that Aurangzeb would meekly go back to where he had come from once the king had reassured him. In panic he also gave out that he was the heir-apparent.

So with suspicion and rumours ruling the day and power having the last laugh, Aurangzeb was the most amused of them all. Within a year he had all his brothers out of the way, father permanently in custody in the Agra Fort (where he hung on for eight years before dying in 1666) and was firmly entrenched on the Mughal throne.

If Shah Jahan has been over-romanticized by scholars, his son and successor Aurangzeb has been unduly denigrated. Aurangzeb, it seems, could do nothing right. Later writers were to contrast his bigotry with Akbar's tolerance, his failure against the Marathas rebels with Akbar's successes against the Rajputs; in fact he has been set up as the polar opposite of everything that earned one the Akbarian medal of genius. One writer has said about him, rather tongue-in-cheek, "His life would have been a blameless one, if he had no father to depose, no brothers to murder and no Hindu subjects to oppress."

This picture of him has left such an impact on popular imagination that even today he is regarded as the bad guy of the Mughal regime, the evil king who slayed all Hindus and Sikhs. Hardly anyone remembers that he governed India for nearly as long as Akbar did (over 48 years) and that he left the empire larger than he found it. In fact, Aurangzeb ruled the single largest state ever in Mughal history.

Aurangzeb's rise to the throne has been criticised as being ruthless. However, he was no crueler than others of his family. He succeeded not because he was crueler but because he was more efficient and more skilled in the game of statecraft with its background of dissimulation; and if it's any consolation, he never shed unnecessary blood. Once established, he showed himself a firm and capable administrator who retained his grip of power until his death at the age of 88. True, he lacked the magnetism of his father and great-grandfather, but commanded an awe of his own. In private life he was simple and even austere, in sharp contrast to the rest of the great Mughals. He was an orthodox Sunni Muslim who thought himself a model Muslim ruler.

Aurangzeb's Reign

Aurangzeb's reign really divides into two almost equal portions.

The first twenty-three years were largely a continuation of Shah Jahan's administration with an added footnote of austerity. The emperor sat in pomp in Delhi or progressed in state to Kashmir for the summer. From 1681 he virtually transferred his capital to the Deccan where he spent the rest of his life in camp, superintending the overthrow of the two remaining Deccan kingdoms in 1686-7 and trying fruitlessly to crush the Maratha rebellion. The assured administrator of the first period became the embattled, embittered old man of the second. Along with the change of occupation came a dramatic metamorphosis of character. The scheming and subtle politician became an ascetic; spending long hours in prayer, fasting and copying the Quran, and pouring out his soul in tortured letters. It was in the second or the Deccan phase of his career that Aurangzeb began to drift towards complete intolerance of Hindus. Earlier his devotion towards Islam had very rarely taken the form of any religious bigotry. Now all that changed – the very king who had ordered in February 1659 that "It has been decided according to our cannon law that long standing temples should not be demolished… our Royal Command is that you should direct that in future no person shall in unlawful ways interfere with or disturb the Brahmins and other Hindu residents in those places" became a total fanatic.

In this zealousness to promote the cause of Islam, Aurangzeb made many fatal blunders and needless enemies. He alienated the Rajputs, whose valuable and trusted loyalty had been so hard won by his predecessors, so totally that they revolted against him. Eventually he managed to make peace with them, but he could never be easy in his mind about Rajputana again, a fact that hampered his Deccan conquest severely. Then, he made bitter enemies in the Sikhs and the Marathas. Things came to such a head that Guru Teg Bahadur, the 9th Guru of the Sikhs was at first tortured and then executed by Aurangzeb for not accepting Islam; a martyrdom which is mourned to this day by the Sikh community. The 10th Guru of the Sikhs, Guru Govind Singh then raised an open banner of revolt against Aurangzeb.

No, Great-grandfather Akbar would certainly not have approved or been amused. He would have raised his imperial eyebrows at such a royal mess and sharply rebuked Aurangzeb for squandering away what he had worked so hard to achieve. Deccan or no Deccan.

Aurangzeb ended his lonely embittered life in Aurangabad in 1707. Perhaps with relief, but surely with much grief too for surely he knew that with him set the glorious sun that was the Mughal dynasty.

Many directly blame Aurangzeb and his destructive policies, which eroded the faith of the subjects in the Mughals for this. However, this is by far an overstatement. Whatever might have been Aurangzeb's policies, he remained very much the emperor till his dying breath in 1707. True, his policies did lead to resentment; even at the end of Shah Jahan's reign the rot had set in. Aurangzeb in fact tried to stop it and did a good band-aid job for a little while, but then things just went haywire with his persistent Deccan devil.

Deccan wrung Aurangzeb the man, the king, the father and the believer out of all softer emotions and decorum. He simply lost all sense of balance. He alienated a sizeable portion of his subjects along with allies and employees and made completely unnecessary enemies, which cost his successors dearly. He tried during his lifetime to put down rebellions all over his empire (the Marathas, the Sikhs, the Satnamis and the Rajputs) by one hand while trying to take Deccan with the other. However, it was like trying to put out a wild fire. Ultimately, it was these alternative power blocs, which were cropping up all over the country that sped up the fall of the Mughals. Not to mention the foreign powers who were already among those present: the British stretching their legs in Calcutta, the Portuguese in Goa and the French testing waters in the South.

Of course, it did not help matters that the successors of the great Mughals were weak and unworthy of their forefathers. But that was bound to happen some time or the other, wasn't it? So, from the late-18th century the field was wide open for any new power that wanted to try to set up shop in India.

This was the time when a certain East India Company suddenly realized that they had stumbled upon a gold mine.

+- Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan (1592-1666)

2010-02-02T07:46:00.000-08:00

Shah Jahan

¤ Shah Jahan-The Favorite Grandson of Emperor Akbar

The scene of history shifts to Delhi again with Shah Jahan (of the Taj Mahal fame), the son of Jahangir ascending the throne. Shah Jahan was the grand old emperor Akbar’s favorite grandson. In fact, at one time there was a genuine fear that the sovereign would name him, instead of his son, as the successor. This was largely because Akbar regarded Jahangir as a bit of a bounder who whiled away his time with wine and women from a startlingly young age. One of the most famous movies in Indian cinematic history is Mughal-e-Azam (a must-see) which, if you take away the romantic trimmings, is all about Akbar saving Jahangir from his romantic excesses.

¤ Shah Jahan's Strain Relations With His Father Jahangir

Jahangir got a taste of his own medicine when he was king and his son Shah Jahan (then Prince Khurram) revolted against him. Jahangir had to eventually resort to the extreme measure of kidnapping his own grandchildren away to Kashmir with him to shut his son up. What drove Shah Jahan further away from his father was the intense court intrigue with the calculating Nur Jahan at the hub. Jahangir, while being every inch an autocrat, was completely dependent on his extremely capable and shrewd wife, Nur Jahan. The queen had a daughter from a previous marriage, and she wanted to see her daughter’s husband safely to the throne. Nur Jahan, who could not have expected to win any popularity contests in Agra, went alone in this choice. A major chunk of the nobility was with Shah Jahan. However it was she who had, as they say, the king’s ear. So despite the fact that Jahangir agreed to forgive and forget Shah Jahan’s misadventures in 1625, the tension could not be defused entirely.

¤ Shah Jhan Chosen As A Successor of The Throne

When Jahangir died in 1627 in Lahore, the Queen tried all the tricks in the book to put her candidate on the throne. But it was all in vain. Shah Jahan ascended the throne on popular demand, Nur Jahan retired from public life and her son-in-law was imprisoned.

¤ The Golden Period of The Mughal Dynasty.

The reign of Shah Jahan has been widely acclaimed as the golden period of the Mughal dynasty. There are many reasons for this. Thanks to the firm base left by his grandfather and father, Shah Jahan’s reign was relatively peaceful and hence prosperous. Except for a drought in 1630, in the areas of Deccan, Gujarat and Khandesh, the kingdom was secure and free from poverty. The coffers of the state were brimming with the right stuff. So it’s no wonder that Shah Jahan was the greatest and most assiduous builder of the Mughal dynasty.

¤ Shah Jhan- Undoubtedly A Great King

In 1639, he decided to shift his capital to Delhi and construct a new city on the banks of the Yamuna, near Ferozabad. It was to be called Shahjahanabad. Work on the fort and city commenced in 1639 and it took 10 years to build the Red Fort and palace. The spectacular peacock throne (the one that Nadir Shah took away) was transferred from Agra to the Red Fort, the new seat of the Mughal rulers, on April 8, 1648.

Jahangir had built a great reputation for himself as a dispenser of justice and Shah Jahan carried forward the good work and took a personal interest in the judiciary. He demanded a high standard of law and order and even petty thieves were not spared. The age was pretty dynamic in the sense that there was intense interaction with foreign countries and travellers poured into India from Persia, France, Italy, Portugal and England. Which is very interesting for the scholar, for one gets accounts of people from myriad nationalities during the Shah Jahan’s reign.

Shah Jahan was undoubtedly a great king. He had shown evidence of being a great general even under his father’s reign. Military genius apart, his capacity for hard work is also legendary. A good administrator, he saw to it that the government machinery moved on oiled wheels. Within a year of his becoming king, the revenue of the state had shot up meteorically.

¤ The Breathtaking Constructions of Taj Mahal

Shah Jahan was an aesthete and loved building. His greatest achievements of course were the breathtaking Taj Mahal, which he built in the memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal, and the magnificent city of Shahjahanabad, which remained the capital of India till well into the 19th century.

There was a downside, of course. He was a bigoted Muslim and a confirmed nepotist. He provided for the imperial princes before anyone else in the matter of administrative and judicial postings regardless of age, capability and talent. He also started the practise of bestowing each prince with an important office. For instance, Dara Shikoh was made the governor of Punjab and Multan while Aurangzeb was appointed governor of all the four provinces of the Deccan. This might have just been a clever way to keep them occupied but that was not how the nobility saw it. The nobles viewed the practice as an obstacle in the path of their prosperity and promotions.

¤ Emperor's Devin Love For His Wife Mumtaz Mahal

It is said that Shah Jahan died in spirit the day his Queen Mumtaz died. Stories are told of how he shut himself up in a room after her death and when he came out next morning his hair had turned white. A nice romantic tale, but the truth is that for all his love, Shah Jahan did not hesitate to expose Mumtaz to the rigours of travel in all states of health so that she died at the young age of 39 after giving birth to their fourteenth child. Also he was quick to seek consolation elsewhere and married several other women after Mumtaz died. However the love for Mumtaz must have been enduring, for when he was old and dying he began missing his queen all over again. By that time however, the power equation had changed once again.

¤ The Peacock Throne

The fantastic Peacock Throne of the Mughals is now only a blurred memory in the collective imagination of Indians. It is now only alluded to illustrate the splendour and riches of India and all our lost glory. Painstakingly created by skilled craftsmen and artisans between 1628 and 1635, it was carried away to Persia by the marauding Nadir Shah in 1739. There are however still some miniature paintings that depict Akbar and Jahangir sitting proud on it. Shaped as a golden bedstead with golden legs and an enamelled canopy supported by 12 pillars, it looks breathtakingly fabulous. Each of the 12 emerald pillars bore two peacocks encrusted with gems and a tree with diamonds, emeralds, rubies and pearls nestled between each pair of birds. Just look at the picture - can you guess how much it cost?

A whopping 10 million rupees, equivalent then to a million and quarter pound sterling.

+- Mughal Emperor Akbar the Great (1542-1605)

2010-01-29T13:09:00.000-08:00

Akbar, the third Mughal emperor, the true founder of the Mughal Empire reigned from Afghanistan to the Bay of Bengal and from the Himalayas to the Godavari River in south. He was the most powerful face on Earth in the 16th century.

Just at the age of 13 an illiterate prince was crowned emperor who proved himself a skilled conqueror and administrator. Not only did he expand his empire’s peripheries but also explored the various fields of art and patronized them. It were those ‘nine jewels’ (nau-ratna) coveting various fields, which pillared his vast empire for almost half a century. His valor definitely played the lead in expanding boundaries but equally true is the fact that no sword can suppress revolt this long however mighty if it had not penetrate the mind and soul of lay-man.

Akbar ruled, when conspiracies were common in every walk of life.

The span for which an emperor ruled depended on the failure or success of various conspiracies at the time. Above all the reforms he made, like removal of Jizya tax; marital alliance with Hindus; acknowledging good art; reflected his desire to propogate harmony and peace. The solid proof was Din-i-illahi, which was the compilation of the best things from every religion.

The Reign of Akbar, 1556-1605

Akbar was only 14 years of age in 1556 when he succeeded his father Humayun. That year, a formidable anti-Mughal coalition, consisting mainly of Afghanis, tried to recapture northern India but lost its battle against the Mughals at Panipat. Mughal control over northern India was finally established.

Akbar pursued a policy of vigorous expansion until his empire reached the greater part of the sub-continent north of the Godavari, writes Hambly. Akbar proved himself as sophisticated a commander and leader as any of his ancestors. Akbar's far-sighted policies also included the employment of talented Hindus in senior administrative positions in a regime that previously had been exclusively Muslim.

In 1566, an attempt was made on Akbar's life. An assassin, posted on the roof of Khair al-Manzel, a madrasah built by Maham Anka near the Purana Qala, shot an arrow at the emperor as he rode back into Delhi. The arrow wounded Akbar's shoulder. This incident changed Akbar's method of rule, notes Hambly. Akbar now took into his own hands the supervision of the entire administration of the empire.

Akbar was an ambitious and noble commander who built the largest army ever in the history of the Mughal empire. By the end of the 16th century, a Mughal army in the field resembled a city on the move. Not all of Akbar's military expeditions were of an expansionist nature. Akbar also was compelled to quell formidable uprisings among his own subjects, especially the Uzbeks and the Afghans. The Afghans in India were the most turbulent and dangerous of the emperor's subjects, especially those who had been born in the time of the Lodi Sultans and still remembered the great era of Shir Shah Sur and his son Islam Shah.

Akbar annexed Malwa, Gondwana, and Bengal to the empire, and the Mughal troops made their first appearance in the Deccan. Khandesh, Berar and Ahmadnagar became Mughal subahs (provinces). According to Hambly, the annexation of the formerly independent Sultanate of Gujarat provided the empire with: enormous additional revenue from the area's rich commercial centers; access to the Gulf of Cambay, and hence, to the holy cities of Mecca and Medina in the Arabian Peninsula; and opportunities for trade with the Portuguese and the Ottoman Empire.

Akbar was well aware of the structure and stratum of the society of his empire. His bold and imaginative approach to the problems of his heterogeneous empire may have reduced some of the long-standing, although generally passive, Hindu antagonism toward an administration which was entirely Muslim in spirit.

Akbar appointed the great Hindu Rajput chiefs to an active partnership in his government. Eventually, it became accepted practice for high-profile Hindus, like Amber or Jodhpur, to be governors of a major province or commander-in-chief of an army composed largely of Muslims. The Hindus were able to practice their own religion without disturbance.

Akbar's policy toward Hindus must be seen in its proper perspective. There was consistent contact between Hindus and Muslims in many areas of social life. Not only Muslim sovereigns but the entire Muslim ruling class recruited Hindus into their services, often in positions of great responsibility such as the case with Todar Mal and his staff. Hindus also served as craftsmen, artisans, entertainers, concubines, soldiers and servants. The two communities acknowledged and respected each other's rights in all aspects of social and religious life, notes Hambly.

Akbar, who was born at Amarkot in Sind in 1542, had spent most of his childhood as an Afghanistan. From his Persian mother, he inherited his princely manners, his love of literature and the arts, and a characteristically Persian delight in philosophical discussion. From his Turkish father, he inherited his fierce energy, his love of war and his ability to command. During the early part of his life, Akbar took the greatest joy in hunting, in elephant fights, and in intellectual games. Akbar reveled in all the varied pleasures of the chase, from facing charging tigers and leopards to pursuing the wild ass in the Rajasthan desert.

Akbar became unhappy with the increasing criticism of his relaxed attitude regarding non-Muslims in his government. Akbar's attitude was undoubtedly related to his vision of an empire with a diversity of faiths and cultures. Akbar's ire also reflected a hardening of his iron will and his fiercely individualistic personality, writes Hambly. The establishment of a new religion, Din-i llahi (Divine Faith), was a result of Akbar's consistent confrontations with his orthodox opponents.

The court of Akbar fostered a lively literary culture and encouraged translations of all kinds. Massive numbers of classics were rendered into Sanskrit and Hindi. Also, religious literature was translated into Persian from other languages like Chaghatai Turkish, Sanskrit and Arabic. Akbar's school of translation made a valuable contribution to the Indianization of the Mughal ruling class.

Hambly writes that Akbar's vigorous personal influence over the life of his court was paralleled in his patronage of painting. During Akbar's reign, early Safavid style -- which had been introduced into India by Humayun -- began to merge and blend with indigenous Indian elements, and a genuinely original Mughal style evolved. The new style brought a change of emphasis in subject matter. Traditional Persian painting had been concerned mainly with the illustration of literary classics such as the shahnameh, Nizami's Khamseh and Jami's Yusuf va Zulaykha. Mughal painters -- many of whom were Hindus -- shifted their focus from illustrating the great classics of Persian literature to new subjects such as the life of Akbar and his court, as well as the representation of nature, landscape and portraiture.

The most distinctive work in Akbar's ateliers was the series of illustrations commissioned for Abdul Fazl's Akbarnameh. This series demonstrates the unique and superb qualities of the nascent Mughal School and set it far apart from its Safavid or Timurid precursors. In this series, crowded and bustling scenes of men and animals are full of vigor and movement; the use of color is uninhibited; and detail is finely observed. The languid is rejected.

Unlike Babur or Humayun, Akbar had both the time and the resources to build on a monumental scale. Most of the monuments were constructed in or near Agra rather than in Delhi, Hambly writes. Akbar did not have great affection for Delhi, although most important Mughal structures had been built there. For Akbar, Delhi must have been a city of unhappy memories -- the scene of his father's death and his own narrow escape from an assassination attempt. Moreover, the principal landmarks in Delhi -- the Purana Qala, the city walls and gateways -- commemorated the greatness of Shir Shah whom Akbar considered as the usurper of his father's kingdom. Since Delhi was the capital of both the Lodi Sultanate and the Shir Shah Sur dynasty, the city was always restless and hostile to the Mughals. In light of these circumstances, Akbar must have found Agra a more attractive residence.

Akbar initially ruled from Delhi, but two years later he moved to Agra. The city was renamed Akbarabad in his honor and became the greatest city in the empire. The main part of the city lay on the west bank of the Yamuna and was provided with a drainage system to control the flow of rainwater. A new city wall was erected, and the old mud-brick fortress used by the Lodis was built again in 1565 of sandstone. The building's red color, write Blair and Bloom, gives rise to its modern name, the Red Fort. Blair and Bloom note that the fort follows the irregular, semicircular plan of its predecessor. On the city side, it is enclosed by a moat and a double wall that is broken by the Delhi Gate on the west and the Amar Singh Gate on the south. The two massive gates are distinguished by rows of arched niches and stunning veneer in red and white marble with highlights in blue glazed tile.

According to the historian Abdul Fazl, construction of the fort was supervised by Muhammad Qasim Khan, who is credited with various feats of civilc engineering and who bore the dual titles, Master of the Land and Sea (mir-I barr wa bahr)and Master of Pyrotechnics (mir-Iatish).

Two palaces are located to the southeast of the Red Fort, the Akbar Mahal and the Jahangiri Mahal. Like the gates, the outer facade of the Jahangiri Mahal is articulated with an orderly series of blind niches and panels filled with geometric motifs. In contrast to the calm austerity of the exterior, many of the interior surfaces are extravagantly decorated in carved stone, painted and carved stucco, and tile. The geometric patterns on screens and flat panels in the Jahangiri Mahal derive from Timurid designs.

A similar synthesis of diverse architectural traditions could be seen on a larger scale at Fatehpur Sikri founded in 1571. The city was known as Fathabad (City of Victory), a Persian name which was soon supplanted in popular usage by the Indianized form, Fatehpur Sikri. Most of the major constructions at Fatehpur Sikri date to the 14 years when the city served as Akbar's principal residence.

The city contained imperial gardens, rest-houses, residences for the nobility, and an experimental school dedicated to the study of language acquisition in childhood. Within the city, the buildings are set in two distinct ways. The service buildings -- such as the caravanseri, the mint or factory, and a long bazaar (chahar-suq) -- are set perpendicular to the southwest/northeast axis of the ridge. The imperial section of the city, which includes one of the largest congregational mosques in India, as well as a residential and administrative area known as the palace (dawlatkhana), is set at an angle to the ridge and aligns with the qibla, write Blair and Bloom.

Akbar's tomb in Sikandara is set in a vast garden (about 760 square yards) enclosed by a high wall and divided by water channels. The red sandstone gateway on the south side, write Blair and Bloom, is crowned by four white marble minarets. It is boldly decorated in white, gray and black marble that is set in panels with geometric designs and large-scale floral arabesques which resemble the patterns on textiles. The numerous Persian verses in the frame around the arch, write Blair and Bloom, compare the tomb and its garden to paradise. They were designed by Abd al-Haqq Shirazi who was awarded the title Amanat Khan (Trustworthy Noble) and who was responsible for many of the inscriptions on the Taj Mahal.

The tomb is a pyramidal arrangement of three tiers of red sandstone pavilions with domed pavilions (chatris) at the corners. On top is an open court containing the emperor's marble cenotaph surrounded by pierced marble screens, write Blair and Bloom. The white color of the marble, continue Blair and Bloom, contrasts sharply with the red sandstone used elsewhere. The play of light and shadow over the increasingly delicate superstructure contrasts with the powerful massing of the basement.

With its receding stories of pillared galleries, write Blair and Bloom, Akbar's tomb belongs to the indigenous tradition of trabeate construction used for palaces, while the podium, with its vaulted bays, vestibule decorated with painted plaster, and high portals whose strong intarsia reproduced the effect of tile, maintains the Timurid tradition of vaulted masonry.

Because of his ideal of cultural synthesis and religious diversity, Akbar reserved a unique place for himself in Indian history.

+- THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

2010-01-06T11:51:00.000-08:00

In India, the Mughal Empire was one of the greatest empires ever. The Mughal Empire ruled hundreds of millions of people. India became united under one rule, and had very prosperous cultural and political years during the Mughal rule. There were many Muslim and Hindu kingdoms split all throughout India until the founders of the Mughal Empire came. There were some men such as Babar, grandson to the Great Asian conqueror Tamerlane and the conqueror Genghis Khan from the northern region of Ganges, river valley, who decided to take over Khyber, and eventually, all of India.

Babar (1526-1530): the great grandson of Tamerlane and Genghis Khan, was the first Mughal emperor in India. He confronted and defeated Lodhi in 1526 at the first battle of Panipat, and so came to establish the Mughal Empire in India. Babar ruled until 1530, and was succeeded by his son Humayun.

Humayun (1530-1540 and 1555-1556): the eldest son of Babar, succeeded his father and became the second emperor of the Mughal Empire. He ruled India for nearly a decade but was ousted by Sher Shah Suri, the Afghan ruler. Humayun wandered for about 15 years after his defeat. Meanwhile, Sher Shah Suri died and Humayun was able to defeat his successor, Sikandar Suri and regain his crown of the Hindustan. However, soon after, he died in 1556 at a young age of 48 years.

Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545): was an Afghan leader who took over the Mughal Empire after defeating Humayun in 1540. Sher Shah occupied the throne of Delhi for not more than five years, but his reign proved to be a landmark in the Sub-continent. As a king, he has several achievements in his credit. He established an efficient public administration. He set up a revenue collection system based on the measurement of land. Justice was provided to the common man. Numerous civil works were carried out during his short reign; planting of trees, wells and building of Sarai (inns) for travellers was done. Roads were laid; it was under his rule that the Grand Trunk road from Delhi to Kabul was built. The currency was also changed to finely minted silver coins called Dam. However, Sher Shah did not survive long after his accession on the throne and died in 1545 after a short reign of five years.

Akbar (1556-1605): Humayun's heir, Akbar, was born in exile and was only 13 years old when his father died. Akbar's reign holds a certain prominence in history; he was the ruler who actually fortified the foundations of the Mughal Empire. After a series of conquests, he managed to subdue most of India. Areas not under the empire were designated as tributaries. He also adopted a conciliatory policy towards the Rajputs, hence reducing any threat from them. Akbar was not only a great conqueror, but a capable organizer and a great administrator as well. He set up a host of institutions that proved to be the foundation of an administrative system that operated even in British India. Akbar's rule also stands out due to his liberal policies towards the non-Muslims, his religious innovations, the land revenue system and his famous Mansabdari system. Akbar's Mansabdari system became the basis of Mughal military organization and civil administration.

Akbar died in 1605, nearly 50 years after his ascension to the throne, and was buried outside of Agra at Sikandra. His son Jehangir then assumed the throne.

Jehangir: Akbar was succeeded by his son, Salim, who took the title of Jehangir, meaning "Conqueror of the World". He married Mehr-un-Nisa whom he gave the title of Nur Jahan (light of the world). He loved her with blind passion and handed over the complete reins of administration to her. He expanded the empire through the addition of Kangra and Kistwar and consolidated the Mughal rule in Bengal. Jehangir lacked the political enterprise of his father Akbar. But he was an honest man and a tolerant ruler. He strived to reform society and was tolerant towards Hindus, Christians and Jews. However, relations with Sikhs were strained, and the fifth of the ten Sikh gurus, Arjun Dev, was executed at Jehangir's orders for giving aid and comfort to Khusrau, Jehangir's rebellious son. Art, literature, and architecture prospered under Jehangir's rule, and the Mughal gardens in Srinagar remain an enduring testimony to his artistic taste. He died in 1627.

Shah Jahan: Jehangir was succeeded by his second son Khurram in 1628. Khurram took the name of Shah Jahan, i.e. the Emperor of the World. He further expanded his Empire to Kandhar in the north and conquered most of Southern India. The Mughal Empire was at its zenith during Shah Jahan's rule. This was due to almost 100 years of unparalleled prosperity and peace. As a result, during this reign, the world witnessed the unique development of arts and culture of the Mughal Empire. Shah Jahan has been called the "architect king". The Red Fort and the Jama Masjid, both in Delhi, stand out as towering achievements of both civil engineering and art. Yet above all else, Shah Jahan is remembered today for the Taj Mahal, the massive white marble mausoleum constructed for his wife Mumtaz Mahal along the banks of the Yamuna River in Agra.

Aurangzeb: Aurangzeb ascended the throne in 1658 and ruled supreme till 1707. Thus Aurangzeb ruled for 50 years, matching Akbar's reign in longevity. But unfortunately he kept his five sons away from the royal court with the result that none of them was trained in the art of government. This proved to be very damaging for the Mughals later on. During his 50 years of rule, Aurangzeb tried to fulfill his ambition of bringing the entire Sub-continent under one rule. It was under him that the Mughal Empire reached its peak in matter of area. He worked hard for years but his health broke down in the end. He left behind no personal wealth when he died in 1707, at the age of 90 years. With his death, the forces of disintegration set in and the mighty Mughal empire started collapsing.

+- THE MAURYAN RULERS

2010-01-06T11:46:00.000-08:00

RISE OF MAURYAN DYNASTY

The Mauryan Empire was the first major empire in the history of India and ruled the land from 322 BC to 185 BC. Important rulers of this dynasty were Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara, and King Ashoka. This empire reached its peak under King Ashoka. However, this mighty empire crumbled rapidly, under its own weight, soon after the death of Ashoka.

CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA (322-298 BC)

Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the Mauryan Empire. The origin of Chandragupta is shrouded in mystery. It is not clear if he belonged to the upper caste or the lower caste. At that time, Magadh was ruled by the Nanda dynasty whose rule was unpopular. Chandragupta founded the Mauryan Empire by overthrowing the Nanda dynasty with the help of Chanakya (also Kautilya) who was an important minister in the court of the Nanda rulers. Chanakya was ill treated by the Nanda king and he vowed to destroy their kingdom. He met the young Chandragupta in the Vindhya forest. As Chanakya was well versed in politics and the affairs of the state, he groomed Chandragupta and helped him raise and organize an army. Thus, with the help of Chanakya, Chandragupta overthrew the last Nanda ruler and became the king. Chanakya became the chief minister in the court of Chandragupta.

The invasion of the northwestern part of India by Alexander in 326 BC and the subsequent establishment of the rule of Seleucus Nikator (one of Alexander's general) was a thorn in the eyes of Chandragupta. Chandragupta firstly stabilized his power in Magadh and then began his campaign against Seleucus.

After a prolonged struggle, Chandragupta was able to defeat Seleucus in 305 BC and annexed the entire Punjab and areas across the Indus River. According to the peace treaty with Seleucus, Chandragupta also got Kabul, Gandhara, and parts of Persia and married his daughter. In this way, Chandragupta became the undisputed ruler of Northern India. His fame was so widespread that rulers from far off kingdoms send their envoys to his court. Chandragupta also conquered parts of Central India and united the whole of northern India under Mauryan rule. After ruling for about 25 years, he became a Jain ascetic and left his throne to his son Bindusara (296 BC-273 BC).

ADMINISTRATION UNDER CHANDRAGUPTA

Most of our knowledge about the Mauryan period in general and the rule of Chandragupta in particular is obtained from two important literary sources: the Arthashastra, written by Chanakya, and Indica, written by the ancient Greek writer Megasthenes (who was an ambassador of Seleucus Nikator and had come to the court of Chandragupta).

The Arthashastra talks about the principles of governance and lays down rules of administration. It also discusses in detail the role of the king, his duties, rate of taxation, use of espionage, and laws for governing the society. The Indica of Megasthenes, on the other hand, gives a vivid description of the Mauryan society under the rule of Chandragupta. Megasthenes described the glory of the Mauryan capital of Pataliputra. He also talked of the lifestyle in the cities and villages and the prosperity of the Mauryan cities.

Chandragupta had united the whole of northern India under one rule and the Mauryan Empire was the first large, powerful, centralized state in India. The Arthashastra laid the foundation of the centralized administration of Mauryan governance. The empire was divided into administrative districts or zones, each of which had a hierarchy of officials. The top most officers from these districts or zones directly reported to the Mauryan ruler. These officials were responsible for collecting taxes, maintaining the army, completing irrigational projects, and maintaining law and order.

During Chandragupta reign, the state regulated trade, levied taxes, and standardized weights and measures. Trade and commerce also flourished during this time. The state was responsible for providing irrigational facilities, succor, sanitation, and famine relief to its masses. Megasthenes, in his writings, has praised the efficient Mauryan administration.

BINDUSARA (296 BC-273 BC)

Chandragupta, after ruling for about 25 years, became a Jain ascetic and left his throne to his son Bindusara, who inherited a vast empire that spanned parts of modern-day Afghanistan in the northwest, to parts of Bengal in the east. It also spread through large parts of central India.

Bindusara extended the Mauryan Empire southwards in the Indian peninsula as far as Mysore. He defeated and annexed 16 small kingdoms, thus extending his empire from sea to sea. The only regions that were left out on the Indian subcontinent were that of Kalinga (Orissa) and the kingdoms to the extreme south of the Indian peninsula. As these southern kingdoms were friendly, Bindusara did not annex them, but the Kingdom of Kalinga was a problem for the Mauryan Empire.

The administration under Bindusara functioned smoothly. During his reign, Mauryan Empire had good relation with Greeks, Syrians, and Egyptians.

ASHOKA (273 BC-232 BC)

Bindusara was succeeded by his son Ashoka, the most famous of the Mauryan Kings. The Mauryan Empire reached its peak under the rule of Ashoka. He undertook military campaign against Kalinga and, after defeating it in a bloody war, annexed it. However, the sight of the large-scale carnage moved Ashoka, and he embraced Buddhism. The war of Kalinga was the turning point in the life of Ashoka to the extent that he shunned all forms of violence and became a strict vegetarian. For the rest of his life, Ashoka preached the principles of Buddhism not only in his vast empire, but also sent missions abroad. Ashoka built a number of rock edicts and pillars to spread the gospel of Buddhism.

ADMINISTRATION UNDER ASHOKA

Before the Kalinga war, the Mauryan administration under Ashoka was not different from that of his predecessors. Ashoka, like previous Mauryan kings, was at the head of the centralized administrative system. He was helped by a council of ministers that was in charge of different ministries like taxation, army, agriculture, justice, etc. The empire was divided into administrative zones, each one having its hierarchy of officials. The top most officers at the zonal level had to keep in touch with the king. These officers took care of all aspects of administration (social welfare, economy, law and order, military) in the different zones. The official ladder went down to the village level.

The war with Kalinga transformed Ashoka both on a personal as well as public level. He made a number of changes in the administration. Ashoka introduced a new cadre of officials, by the name of Dhamma Mahamatta, who were sent across the empire to spread the message of Ashoka's Dhamma (dharma).

ASHOKA'S DHAMMA

As Ashoka became a devout Buddhist, he began to spread the teachings of Buddha by issuing edicts, which not only propagated religion but also his ideas on society and governance.

These edicts were sent to different parts of the empire, where they were engraved on rocks or pillars, for the common people to see and read them.These edicts were written in different scripts. Most of them were in Brahmi, which was common in most parts of the empire. The language was generally Prakrit (ancient language), as it was spoken by the common people, whereas Sanskrit was spoken by educated upper caste people. Some inscriptions were also written in Greek and Aramaic (an Indo-Persian language). As Ashoka wanted his message to reach all his subjects, he used the language they understood.

Ashoka believed in high ideals, which, according to him, could lead people to be virtuous, and peace loving. This he called Dhamma (which is a Prakrit form of the Sanskrit word Dharma). His rock edicts and pillar inscriptions propagated the true essence of Dhamma. Ashoka asked the different religious groups (Brahmins, Buddhist and Jain) to live in peace. His lofty ideals also included shunning violence and war, stopping animal sacrifice, respect for elders, respect of slaves by their masters, vegetarianism, etc. Above all, Ashoka wanted peace in his empire.

Ashoka believed that the King should look upon his subjects as a father treats his children. He took care of his subjects in various ways and was responsible for carrying out a lot of welfare activities during his reign like building of roads, planting of trees along these roads, wells, rest houses for travelers, hospitals for the sick, etc. The Dhamma Mahamattas (officers responsible for promoting the policy of Dhamma) looked after these welfare activities across the empire.

Ashoka had a friendly relation with his neighbors and sent and received envoys to/from them. He sent his son Mahendra to Sri Lanka to preach Buddhism there. He also propagated Buddhism to Chola and Pandya kingdoms, which were at the extreme southern part of the Indian peninsula. He also sent Buddhist missions to Burma and other Southeast Asian countries.

THE END OF THE MAURYAN EMPIRE

The great Mauryan Empire did not last long after the death of Ashoka and ended in 185 BC. Weak kings on one hand and the unmanageability of a vast empire on the other caused the rapid decline of the Mauryas. A number of small kingdoms emerged from the edifice of the Mauryan Empire.

+- MAURYAN EMPIRE CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA

2010-01-03T10:13:00.000-08:00

Chandragupta Maurya was India’s first Emperor and great leader. Starting out from lowly beginnings and with the help of some talented individuals Chandragupta would form India’s first great empire, which would last for 140 years after his death.

Chandragupta Maurya’s origns are shrouded in mystery. Generally there are two accepted stories on the birth and youth of Chandragupta Maurya. One story has Chandragupta born into the Maurya clan of the Kshatriyas (Hindu warrior caste), who fell on such bad times that he was sold by his maternal uncles to a cowherd, who raised him as his son. He was later sold as a boy to a hunter to tend his cattle. It was about this time it is said that Chandragupta met Kautilya, who was a Brahmin (a Hindu priest). Kautilya was interested in the boy and his Khastriya origns for the purpose of getting revenge on the reigning Nanda kings of Magadha (in modern Bihar, India). Kautilya then bought Chandragupta from the hunter and took him to Taxila (modern Pakistan) where he gave the boy a royal education, in preparation for the purpose he had for Chandragupta. The second tradition has Chandragupta Maurya being born out of the affair of a Nanda prince and his maid, whose name was Mura (according to this tradition Chandragupta named his dynasty for his mother). Chandragupta spent his youth in the palace and was raised as a prince, but when a kinsman of his named Dhanananda came to power things changed. In a confusing series of events Chandragupta found himself at the center of a political movement by the Brahmins to kick the Nandas out of Magadha, at the end of which Chandragupta was exiled. In this exile the young man met Kautilya, who like above, was interested in Chandragupta for the purpose of revenge. Kautilya then took Chandragupta in as his adopted son and took him to Taxila to complete his royal training.

In any case it was from Taxila that Chandragupta Maurya would begin his conquest. According to Plutarch it was shortly after completing his training that Chandragupta saw the Macedonian army of Alexander the Great. Intrigued by the foreigners and their army Chandragupta studied them and even met with Alexander himself, telling him that the time was ripe for an advance further south. Modern historians believe that Chandragupta was trying to manipulate Alexander into weakening Magadha enough for him to stage a coup. In any case Alexander was forced to turn back and upon his death in Babylon in 323 B.C. Chandragupta, on the advice of Kautilya raised an army. Before long Chandragupta had a disciplined fighting force organized along Macedonian lines and in 322 B.C. (the first definite date in Chandragupta’s life we have) conquered the Punjab. He turned his army around and marched on Magadha, where Dhanananda was so unpopular that Chandragupta was hailed as a liberator by most of the people. In 321 B.C. Chandragupta finally defeated the Nanda loyalists and was proclaimed king, but this did not satisfy Chandragupta, who named himself Emperor Chandragupta Maurya I and his empire, the Mauryan Empire. In accordance with Kautilya’s advice Chandragupta increased the size of his forces till they numbered 30,000 cavalry, 9,000 elephants, and 600,000 infantry. He then sent this army to conquer the Macedonian held Indus River valley in 317 B.C., which was falling into the grips of civil war. After this Chandragupta, again by Kautilya’s advice, settled down to give his new empire structure. During his training in Taxila Chandragupta had grown to earn a liking for the Achaemenid style of governance and ruling, so he instituted a similar system in his Mauryan Empire. A period of peace and stability then ensued following this, but this peace was shattered when news reached the Mauryan capital of Pataliputra in 305 B.C. that Seleukos (Seleucus) I Nicator of the newly formed Seleucid Empire was marching towards the Indus, intent on recovering Alexander’s Indian possessions. Chandragupta went out to meet Seleukos in battle and utterly defeated him at the Indus. The war continued for the next two years until in 303 B.C. Seleukos and Chandragupta reached an understanding. Seleukos agreed to recognize the Mauryan Empire as a legitimate state and to give up the territories of Gandara and Arachosia (The Kabul valley in modern Afghanistan). Chandragupta in turn agreed to recognize the Seleucid Empire as a legitimate state and gave 500 elephants as a gift. To seal the deal Seleukos gave his daughter Helen to Chandragupta as a wife. After the signing of the treaty Chandragupta resumed his conquests, by the time Kautilya convinced him to stop again the Mauryan Empire extended as far north as the Himalayan Mountains and as far south as the Narmada River. With this Chandragupta stopped his expansion and focused internally.

Chandragupta Maurya had made his empire huge and given it a great system of governance; now that he had all the land he wanted he settled down to focus on these domestic matters. One of the first things he did was continue to refine the Achaemenid system. Chandragupta then reformed the caste system so that instead four castes, there were seven: Philosophers, Peasants, Herdsmen, Traders, Soldiers, Government Officials, and Councilors. The backbone of the Mauryan Empire was its agricultural prosperity. To maximize this Chandragupta made it so that he owned all of the farms, he then rented these farms out for a quarter or a half of what was produced on them. To make sure that people worked on the farms Chandragupta exempted them from military service or any other service to the state. The country’s civil service was such: The empire was divided into districts which were managed by relatives and trusted generals of Chandragupta, in each district were several departments which managed all of the government owned faculties and responsibilities in the district. Chandragupta also saw to it that the government controlled the prices of goods and trade, which he did by standardizing all of the weights, measures, and coinage in the Mauryan Empire. To protect the nation from foreign attack Chandragupta Maurya standardized the armed forces so that the Mauryan army would always stand at the strength of 600,000 men. However despite the great wealth and power of his empire, Chandragupta Maurya never enjoyed it, for he was incredibly paranoid. This paranoia was the reason that Chandragupta created a branch of the government that reported directly to him on everything and everybody in the government, even the slightest suspicion on the part of Chandragupta could make a person disappear. The crowning achievements of this paranoia were, according to Megasthenes (Seleucid ambassador to Chandragupta), the building of a palace that reportedly contained 1,400 beds that he never slept twice in and the formation of, on the advice of Kautilya, a unit of 700 female bodyguards.

Chandragupta Maurya’s last years and death are filled with as much mystery as his birth. In 301 B.C. a Jainist sage named Bhadrabahu said that there would be a twelve year drought. According to Jainist tradition Chandragupta, upon seeing the drought happen converted to Jainism and abdicated the throne to his son Bindusara in that same year. He died in this account by starving himself to death while in prayer with Bhadrabahu in 297 B.C. In another account Chandragupta simply threw Bhadrabahu out of his court and ignored his warning, dieing as in the above in 297 B.C., but in this account because of old age. So died Chandragupta Maurya, the first great unifier of India, at an unknown age.

The impact of Chandragupta Maurya was tremendous. Due to Chandragupta’s strong military tradition and excellent government structure the Mauryan Empire was able to grow to cover the entire Indian subcontinent under the reigns of his son Bindusara and his grandson, the legendary Buddhist Emperor Ashoka. While the Mauryan Empire would not last for very long after the death of its founder (about 140 years) the mark it left behind on India still remains to this day.

+- THE MAURYAN EMPIRE

2010-01-03T09:57:00.000-08:00

Chandragupta Maurya founded the Mauryan Empire in 326 b.c.e. in northern India. His son Bindusara and grandson Ashoka (Asoka) continued his conquest that unified the entire subcontinent, with the exception of the southern tip, and part of Afghanistan into India’s first great empire. The political and 262 Mauryan Empire cultural achievements of the Mauryan Empire inspire Indians to the present.

Indian history began to emerge from legend in the sixth century b.c.e. with the formation of large kingdoms. One was Magadha in the Ganges Valley with its capital city at Pataliputra, near modern Patna. The trend toward large state formation was also stimulated by external conquest. The first was in 518 b.c.e., when King Darius I of Persia conquered part of northwestern India, incorporating it into his empire. The Persian Empire fell to Alexander the Great, who continued marching eastward until he reached the Indus River valley and defeated King Porus and other local rulers.

Chandragupta Maurya might have been inspired by Alexander’s example. In any case, he defeated his Indian rivals, including Magadha, established his capital at Pataliputra, and then fought Alexander’s successor in Asia, Seleucus Nicator, in 305 b.c.e. The two rulers agreed to a peace treaty that settled their boundary in Afghanistan, exchanged gifts and ambassadors, and perhaps formed a matrimonial alliance. Seleucus’s ambassador to the Mauryan court was Megasthenes, who wrote a book of his observations on India. The original is lost, but excerpts have survived in works of other ancient writers, from which we derive much firsthand information about early Mauryan India.

Chandragupta’s minister, named Kautilya, reputedly wrote a book titled Arthasastra (Treatise on polity), which dealt with the theory and practice of government, the laws, and administration. The Arthasastra described the Mauryan Empire as a centralized bureaucratic state. The ruler was supreme commander, chief administrator, and judge. A council of ministers, civil servants, a network of spies, and a large military, reputedly 600,000 men strong, assisted Chandragupta. Megasthenes described Pataliputra as a grand city, enclosed by a wooden wall 9 miles long by 1.5 miles wide, interspersed with gates and watchtowers, and further protected by a wide moat. The city government consisted of six boards of five men each, in charge of different functions. The ruler lived in a sumptuous palace, his hours of work and play were strictly regulated, and when he appeared in public he either rode on an elephant or was carried in a palanquin.

Chandragupta ruled for 25 years. According to Jain tradition he abdicated in 301 b.c.e., became a Jain monk, and fasted to death. His son and successor Bindusara ruled until c. 272 b.c.e. Little is known of him except that he warred to expand the empire southward and was known as the Slayer of Foes. He also exchanged ambassadors with the Seleucid Empire, once asking King Antiochus I to send him some Greek wine, figs, and a philosopher. Antiochus sent him wine and figs and replied that philosophers were not for sale.

Bindusara’s son Ashoka succeeded around 269–268 b.c.e., perhaps after a succession struggle. Ashoka (r. 269–232 b.c.e.) was India’s greatest ruler. He waged war to expand the empire in the south, incorporating all but the southern tip of the subcontinent. His conquest of a state called Kalinga filled him with remorse for the death and destruction and changed his personal life and state policy. Posterity knows much about Ashoka because he had many of his edicts and pronouncements carved on stone pillars and rock surfaces; 10 inscribed pillars survive. Most of the inscriptions are in the Brahmi script, the oldest surviving post-Indus writing; it is a phonetic alphabetical script that is the antecedent of modern Hindi.

Ashoka converted to Buddhism, became a vegetarian, and dedicated the rest of his reign to spreading Buddhism, although he honored all religions. He also discouraged hunting and encouraged people to go on pilgrimages instead. A son and daughter became Buddhist missionaries, spreading the faith to Ceylon. He also convened the Third Buddhist Council around 240 b.c.e. at Pataliputra to deal with differences within the monastic order and to finish compiling the Buddhist canons. He denounced immoral behavior and appointed morality officers to enforce his rules. He also renounced war, stating his intention to change people through moral persuasion; but importantly, he did not disband the army.

Life under the Mauryans was prosperous. While most people lived on farms, cities grew with increasing commerce within the empire and beyond, with China in the East and Rome in the West. The government even established a bureau that built ships and leased them to merchants. Culture flourished. Buddhist and Jain canons were completed during this period. Other writings include religious commentaries and early versions of the epics Mahabharata and Ramayana.

It appears that Ashoka lost his grip in his later years and died around 232 b.c.e. Several sons disputed his succession, and the empire began to fall apart as local governors, many royal princes, exerted their autonomy. Little is known about his successors except their names. Perhaps the fall of the Mauryan Empire was inevitable due to its size and diversity. In 183 b.c.e. a general killed the last Mauryan ruler and established a dynasty in northern India called the Sunga. Meanwhile, Bactrian Greeks were invading the northwestern frontier. India would be torn apart and fragmented for almost fi ve centuries. Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of India’s first great empire, and his minister Kautilya helped establish the institutions that sustained it. The empire grew in size, wealth, and culture under his son and grandson, reaching its zenith under Emperor Ashoka. Its legacy to modern times is the concept of unity for the subcontinent.

+- MAURYAN EMPIRE THE GREAT ASHOKA

2010-01-03T09:42:00.000-08:00

The Life Of Ashoka Mauryan

In 324 BCE, Chandragupta, ruler of the Mauryan Empire set out to conquer the weaker surrounding kingdoms to expand the territory of his people. As an explorer by nature, Chandragupta would travel to other lands to determine weather or not their defenses could put up much of a struggle. His military, while not extraordinary, devastated the primitive neighbors and avoided those that could not be won in a day. With cautious technique and determination the emperor spread his boundaries in every direction. With the aid of a Brahman statesman named Kautilya, who organized the political hierarchy of command, Chandragupta became the first to rule over a unified India.

Chandragupta governed the land as best he knew until the century's end, then entrusted the state to his son Bindusara. Nothing changed under the second generation of the Mauryan Empire. The territory continued to increase, as did the size of the military. Bindusara established a reign much the same as his fathers, controlling a larger kingdom than ever before known. As time went on however, the King became ill and speculation ran wild concerning which of his sons would inherit the throne. Tradition would choose the eldest son but many advisors became doubtful of his capabilities.

Oddly enough, soon after Bindusara addressed the public with his intent to stand down, a silent sibling rivalry commenced. For some strange reason Bindusara's sons became the victims of an assassin. One by one each man fell until only Ashoka stood tall. He was the one of many to evade a murderer. It is the belief of many historians that Ashoka and another of political influence thought it better if Bindusara were elevated of his decision.

Ashoka was anointed the new emperor in 274 BCE. Immediately he began instituting his law of oppression by administering capital punishment for even the slightest infractions. His cruel heart showed mercy upon no one. His people spoke so poorly of the new king's antics, word went straight to the top by way of the spies Ashoka had created to investigate public concern. Desiring to win rather than demand acclaim, Ashoka decided to surpass the efforts of his predecessors by brutally demolishing the kingdoms previously unscaved. The kingdom of Kalinga had with its borders, long kept the Mauryan Empire from accessing much of the Ganges river. This was enough of a reason to initiate an invasion. He led his military to eventual victory but in the process lost as well.

Standing along the front lines, Ashoka witnessed first hand the massacre of hundreds of thousands waged war on complete strangers. He knew so many had lost their lives simply because, he, the king, had ordered them to do so. Women became widows, children now orphans, Ashoka asked himself exactly what had his people won in war.

Great changes in policy fell on India following the war. Ashoka relinquished all intent in expanding his lands by military means. He had nothing to gain in battle and no reason to fear outside invasion. Instead he turned all his attention to the welfare of his subjects, and so began an era of peace and internal progression. By example Ashoka taught and persuaded his people to love and respect all living things. According to Dr. Munshi, "he insisted on the recognition of the sanctity of all human life".

The unnecessary slaughter or mutilation of animals was immediately abolished. Wildlife became protected by the king's law against sport hunting and branding. Limited hunting was permitted for consumption reasons but the overwhelming majority of Indians chose by their own free will to become vegetarians. Ashoka also showed mercy to those imprisoned, allowing them leave for the outside a day of the year. He attempted to raise the professional ambition of the common man by building universities for study and water transit and irrigation systems for trade and agriculture. He treated his subjects as equals regardless of their religion, politics and cast. The kingdoms surrounding his, so easily overthrown, were instead made to be well-respected allies.

Ashoka became an avid Buddhist practitioner, building 84,000 stupas across his empire housing the sacred relics of Gotama. He sent his family on religious pilgrimages to foreign lands and held massive assemblies so holy men from the world over could converse upon philosophies of the day. More than even Buddhism was Ashoka's deep involvement in the dharma. The dharma became the ultimate personal conduct of moral and ethical standard he desired his subjects to live by.

The Dharma

Ashoka saw the dharma as a righteous path showing the utmost respect for life. The dharma would bring harmony to India in the form of compassion. Serving as a guiding light, a voice of conscious that is the dharma can lead one to be a respectful, responsible human being. Edward D'cruz interprets the Ashokan dharma as a "religion to be used as a symbol of a new imperial unity and a cementing force to weld the diverse and heterogeneous elements of the empire". Ashoka's intent was to instigate "a practice of social behavior so broad and benevolent in its scope that no person, no matter what his religion, could reasonably object to it".

The dream was to unify a nation so large that its people of one region share little in common with those of another region. Diversity of religion, ethnicity and many cultural aspects held citizens against each other, creating a social block. The moral order of dharma could be agreed upon as beneficial and progressive by all who could understand its merits, in fact the dharma had long been a primary practice for members of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. Dharma became the link between king and commoner, everyone lived by the same law of moral, religious and civil obligation toward each other

Legacy of Ashoka

The reign of Ashoka Mauryan could easily have disappeared into history as the ages passed by, and would have, if hadn't he left behind a record of his trials. The testimony of this king was discovered in the form of magnificently sculpted pillars and boulders with the actions and teachings he wished to be published etched into the stone. What Ashoka left behind was the first written language in India since the ancient city of Harrapa. Rather than Sanskrit, the language used for inscription was the current spoken form called Prakrita. In translating these monuments, historians learn the bulk of what is assumed to have been true fact of the Mauryan Empire. It is difficult to determine whether or not some actual events ever happened but the etchings clearly depict how Ashoka wanted to be thought of and remembered.

The pillars, chiseled from stone, could weigh to fifty tons a piece. These would habitually be topped off with the sculpture of a lion or bull and carry the word of the king around its base. The transportation of each rock and pillar was a major ordeal, it may take several hundreds to hoist the artifact into place or onto a vessel capable of travel with such extreme weight. Each edict was sent to the outstretches of the empire so all could read, or be read to, the royal dharma. Most commonly the more elaborate works were sent to places of national importance and spiritual recognition, such as the birth place of Gotama.

Pillar Edict II when translated describes the "middle path", the way to enlightenment through dharma that the Buddha taught in his first sermon. Others such as Pillar Edict VII, quote Ashoka as remarking "I consider the promotion of my people's welfare my highest duty". Professor Tambiah, an anthropologist of the University of Chicago translates Rock Edict XI as reading, "There is no gift that can equal the gift of dharma, establishment of human relations in dharma, the distribution of wealth through dharma, or the kinship in dharma". Many of the etchings are complex and contradicting but those of the day got the message loud and clear. years preaching the dharma in order to unify his people. Just as he will never be forgotten, neither will his efforts to impose his great force of dharma. This is why the people of modern India have taken his image of "the wheel of dharma" from the sacred pillars and forever embedded it in the center of their national flag. It's no wonder in all his achievements, Ashoka, the Buddhist King, has inspired infinite cultures, multiple religions, and "One nation under god, with liberty and justice for all".

+- King Henry IX

2009-12-26T09:49:00.000-08:00

Henry Benedict Maria Clement Thomas Francis Xavier Stuart was born March 6, 1725, in the Palazzo Muti (now Palazzo Balestra) in Rome. He was the younger son of King James III and VIII and of his wife, Maria Clementina Sobieska. From his birth he bore the title of "Prince of England, Scotland, France and Ireland". Shortly after his birth (and certainly before March 28, 1733) he was raised to the Peerage of England with the title of "Duke of York".

On the day of his birth Henry was baptised in the Palazzo Balestra by Pope Benedict XIII. His childhood and youth were spent between his father's residences in Rome, Albano, and Bologna. In October 1745 he arrived in Paris seeking French support for his brother Charles' campaign to restore their father to his thrones. Henry was successful in obtaining French troops, artillery and ships. However, there were ongoing delays and neither Henry nor the French force ever managed to reach Scotland to support the uprising; this was an ongoing source of friction between Henry and his brother for many years.

In May and June 1746 Henry saw his only active military service at the siege of Antwerp. In October he returned to Clichy (now a suburb of Paris) where shortly afterwards he was joined by his brother. Henry remained at Clichy until the following April, when he returned to Rome.

In June 1747 Pope Benedict XIV announced his intention to enroll Henry in the Sacred College of Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church. On June 30 the Henry received the tonsure - the formal shaving of the scalp which precedes ordination and marks entrance into the clerical state. On July 3 he was formally created Cardinal-Deacon, receiving on July 9 the diaconal title of Santa Maria in Portico (sometimes called in Campitelli). Henceforward he used the title "Cardinal Duke of York".

Henry received from the pope himself ordination to the four minor orders, the sub-diaconate, and the diaconate, on August 27, 1747, August 18, 1748, and August 25, 1748 respectively. He was ordained priest by the pope, September 1, 1748. Subsequently he received many ecclesiastical offices. In 1751 he was made Arch-Priest of the Vatican Basilica. On December 18, 1752, he was raised to the rank of Cardinal-Priest with the title of Santi XII Apostoli. On March 13, 1758, Pope Benedict XIV named him, Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church; as such Henry was responsible for the administration of the Church from the death of Pope Benedict XIV until the election of Pope Clement XIII.

On October 2, 1758, Pope Clement XIII named Henry, Archbishop of Corinth in partibus infidelium, and on November 19, the pope ordained him bishop in the Basilica dei Santi XII Apostoli. On February 12, 1759, Henry changed his cardinalatial title to that of Santa Maria in Trastevere. Henry was named Cardinal-Bishop with the title of Frascati, July 13, 1761. On January 24, 1763, he was named Vice-Chancellor of the Holy Roman Church, an office he held until his death.

For most of the next forty years Henry lived in the town of Frascati some fifteen kilometres south of Rome. He was a very active bishop and even today is still remembered in the town for his numerous acts of charity. Henry also maintained a residence in Rome at the Palazzo della Cancelleria.

In 1765 when it became clear that his father King James III and VIII was about to die, Henry sent Pope Clement XIII a memorial in an unsuccessful attempt to receive papal recognition for the rights of his brother Charles III. While at first he issued a protest against the honours Charles bestowed on his illegitimate daughter Charlotte, Duchess of Albany, Henry later came to have a very warm relationship with his niece.

In January of 1784, when it appeared that his brother Charles might be on the point of dying, Henry published a protest in which he affirmed his rights of succession. At the death of his brother Charles, January 30/31, 1788, Henry succeeded to all of his British rights. He was henceforward recognised by the Jacobites as "King Henry IX". In accordance with the 1784 protest, Henry made certain changes in accordance with his new station. He now used the title "Cardinal called Duke of York" (in Latin nuncupatus and in Italian denominato) in order to indicate that this was no longer his real title. He changed his arms from those of a second son (with a crescent in the middle) to the undifferenced Royal Arms; these were now surmounted with a royal crown instead of a ducal coronet. The members of his household staff addressed him as Majesty.

Henry's financial situation changed drastically in the late 1790's. For most of his life he had been very wealthy, having inherited large amounts of money and jewels from his Polish grandfather and having received a number of lucrative ecclesiastical benefices which provided him with ongoing income. But his financial resources were almost totally depleted in his support of the ransom paid to the Bonapartist French armies to stop them from sacking Rome in 1798. The general upheaval in Europe also meant that he no longer received income from his benefices in France and Spain.

For many years attempts had been made to retrieve the English dowry of his grandmother Mary of Modena, wife of King James II and VII. The de facto British government had repeatedly promised to pay this debt to the Stuarts but had never actually done so. In 1799, however, the Elector George II of Hanover agreed to pay Henry an annual pension of £4,000. While the supporters of the Elector of Hanover have represented this as an act of charity, for Henry it was no more than a first installment on the money which was legally owed to him. In accepting this money he in no way at all considered that he was renouncing his own hereditary rights or recognising the legitimacy of the Elector of Hanover's government in Britain.

On September 26, 1803, Henry was named Cardinal Bishop of Ostia and Velletri; he continued however to reside in the episcopal palace at Frascati. It was there that he died, July 13, 1807, when he was succeeded in all his British rights by his second cousin twice removed Charles Emanuel of Savoy; this was confirmed by Henry's will in which he stated that his rights passed to that "prince on whom they devolve by right, by proximity of blood, and by rights of succession". Henry's remains lie in the crypt of the Basilica of Saint Peter in the Vatican, where a monument designed by Antonio Canova was raised to his memory.

It is sometimes stated that in his will Henry left the crown jewels to the Elector of Hanover; this is incorrect. According to his will, Henry entrusted all his property to Monsignor Angelo Cesarini who was responsible for distributing this property (presumably according to Henry's wishes). Monsignor Cesarini sent to the Hereditary Prince of Hanover (later the Elector George IV) several jewels from Henry's private collection. These included a Lesser George (thought to have been worn by King Charles I at his execution, and now at Windsor Castle), a St. Andrew's Cross (now at Holyrood Palace in Edinburgh), and a ruby ring.

+- Henry VIII (1491 - 1547 AD)

2009-12-26T08:02:00.000-08:00

Henry VIII - born in 1491, was the second son of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. The significance of Henry's reign is, at times, overshadowed by his six marriages: dispensing with these forthwith enables a deeper search into the major themes of the reign. He married Catherine of Aragon (widow of his brother, Arthur) in 1509, divorcing her in 1533; the union produced one daughter, Mary. Henry married the pregnant Anne Boleyn in 1533; she gave him another daughter, Elizabeth, but was executed for infidelity (a treasonous charge in the king's consort) in May 1536. He married Jane Seymour by the end of the same month, who died giving birth to Henry's lone male heir, Edward, in October 1536. Early in 1540, Henry arranged a marriage with Anne of Cleves, after viewing Hans Holbein's beautiful portrait of the German princess. In person, alas, Henry found her homely and the marriage was never consummated. In July 1540, he married the adulterous Catherine Howard - she was executed for infidelity in March 1542. Catherine Parr became his wife in 1543, providing for the needs of both Henry and his children until his death in 1547.

The court life initiated by his father evolved into a cornerstone of Tudor government in the reign of Henry VIII. After his father's staunch, stolid rule, the energetic, youthful and handsome king avoided governing in person, much preferring to journey the countryside hunting and reviewing his subjects. Matters of state were left in the hands of others, most notably Thomas Wolsey, Archbishop of York. Cardinal Wolsey virtually ruled England until his failure to secure the papal annulment that Henry needed to marry Anne Boleyn in 1533. Wolsey was quite capable as Lord Chancellor, but his own interests were served more than that of the king: as powerful as he was, he still was subject to Henry's favor - losing Henry's confidence proved to be his downfall. The early part of Henry's reign, however, saw the young king invade France, defeat Scottish forces at the Battle of Foldden Field (in which James IV of Scotland was slain), and write a treatise denouncing Martin Luther's Reformist ideals, for which the pope awarded Henry the title "Defender of the Faith".

The 1530's witnessed Henry's growing involvement in government, and a series of events which greatly altered England, as well as the whole of Western Christendom: the separation of the Church of England from Roman Catholicism. The separation was actually a by-product of Henry's obsession with producing a male heir; Catherine of Aragon failed to produce a male and the need to maintain dynastic legitimacy forced Henry to seek an annulment from the pope in order to marry Anne Boleyn. Wolsey tried repeatedly to secure a legal annulment from Pope Clement VII, but Clement was beholden to the Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and nephew of Catherine. Henry summoned the Reformation Parliament in 1529, which passed 137 statutes in seven years and exercised an influence in political and ecclesiastic affairs which was unknown to feudal parliaments. Religious reform movements had already taken hold in England, but on a small scale: the Lollards had been in existence since the mid-fourteenth century and the ideas of Luther and Zwingli circulated within intellectual groups, but continental Protestantism had yet to find favor with the English people. The break from Rome was accomplished through law, not social outcry; Henry, as Supreme Head of the Church of England, acknowledged this by slight alterations in worship ritual instead of a wholesale reworking of religious dogma. England moved into an era of "conformity of mind" with the new royal supremacy (much akin to the absolutism of France's Louis XIV): by 1536, all ecclesiastical and government officials were required to publicly approve of the break with Rome and take an oath of loyalty. The king moved away from the medieval idea of ruler as chief lawmaker and overseer of civil behavior, to the modern idea of ruler as the ideological icon of the state.

The remainder of Henry's reign was anticlimactic. Anne Boleyn lasted only three years before her execution; she was replaced by Jane Seymour, who laid Henry's dynastic problems to rest with the birth of Edward VI. Fragmented noble factions involved in the Wars of the Roses found themselves reduced to vying for the king's favor in court. Reformist factions won the king's confidence and vastly benefiting from Henry's dissolution of the monasteries, as monastic lands and revenues went either to the crown or the nobility. The royal staff continued the rise in status that began under Henry VII, eventually to rival the power of the nobility. Two men, in particular, were prominent figures through the latter stages of Henry's reign: Thomas Cromwell and Thomas Cranmer. Cromwell, an efficient administrator, succeeded Wolsey as Lord Chancellor, creating new governmental departments for the varying types of revenue and establishing parish priest's duty of recording births, baptisms, marriages and deaths. Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, dealt with and guided changes in ecclesiastical policy and oversaw the dissolution of the monasteries.

Henry VIII built upon the innovations instituted by his father. The break with Rome, coupled with an increase in governmental bureaucracy, led to the royal supremacy that would last until the execution of Charles I and the establishment of the Commonwealth one hundred years after Henry's death. Henry was beloved by his subjects, facing only one major insurrection, the Pilgrimage of Grace, enacted by the northernmost counties in retaliation to the break with Rome and the poor economic state of the region. History remembers Henry in much the same way as Piero Pasqualigo, a Venetian ambassador: "... he is in every respect a most accomplished prince."

+- Henry VII (1457-1509 AD)

2009-12-24T09:25:00.000-08:00

KING HENRY VII - of England, was the first of the Tudor dynasty. His claim to the throne was through his mother, Margaret Beaufort, from John of Gaunt and Catherine Swynford, whose issue born before their marriage had been legitimated by parliament. This, of course, was only Lancastrian claim, never valid, even as such, till the direct male line of John of Gaunt had become extinct. By his father, Edmund of Hadham, the genealogists traced his pedigree to Cadwallader, but this only endeared him to the Welsh when he had actually become king. His grandfather, Owen Tudor, however, had married Catherine, the widow of Henry V and daughter to Charles VI of France. Their son Edmund, being half brother of Henry VI, was created by that King Earl of Richmond, and having married Margaret Beaufort, only daughter of John, Duke of Somerset, died more than two months before their only child, Henry, was born in Pembroke Castle in January 1457.

The fatherless child had sore trials. Edward IV won the crown when Henry was four years old, and while Wales partly held out against the conqueror, he was carried for safety from one castle to another. Then for a time he was made a prisoner; but ultimately he was taken abroad by his uncle Jasper Tudor, who found refuge in Brittany. At one time the duke of Brittany was nearly induced to surrender him to Edward IV; but he remained safe in the duchy till the cruelties of Richard III drove more and more Englishmen abroad to join him. An invasion of England was planned in 1483 in concert with the Duke of Buckingham's rising; but stormy weather at sea and an inundation in the Severn defeated the two movements.

A second expedition, two years later, aided this time by France, was more successful. Henry landed at Milford Haven among his Welsh allies and defeated Richard at the battle of Bosworth (August 22, 1485). He was crowned at Westminster on the 30th of October following. Then, in fulfilment of pledges by which he had procured the adhesion of many Yorkist supporters, he was married at Westminster to Elizabeth (1465-1503), eldest daughter and heiress of Edward IV (Jan. 18, 1486), whose two brothers had both been murdered by Richard III. Thus the Red and White Roses were united and the pretexts for civil war done away with.

Nevertheless, Henry's reign was much disturbed by a succession of Yorkist conspiracies and pretenders. Of the two most notable impostors, the first, Lambert Simnel, personated the Earl of Warwick, son of the Duke of Clarence, a youth of seventeen whom Henry had at his accession taken care to imprison in the Tower. Simnel, who was but a boy, was taken over to Ireland to perform his part, and the farce was wonderfully successful. He was crowned as Edward VI in Christchurch Cathedral, Dublin, and received the allegiance of every one — bishops, nobles and judges, alike with others. From Ireland, accompanied by some bands of German mercenaries procured for him in the Low Countries, he invaded England; but the rising was put down at Stoke near Newark in Nottinghamshire, and, Simnel being captured, the king made him a menial of his kitchen.

This movement had been greatly assisted by Margaret, duchess dowager, of Burgundy, sister of Edward IV, who could not endure to see the House of York supplanted by that of Tudor. The second pretender, Perkin Warbeck, was also much indebted to her support; but he seems to have entered on his career at first without it. And his story, which was more prolonged, had to do with the attitude of many countries towards England. Anxious as Henry was to avoid being involved in foreign wars, it was not many years before he was committed to a war with France, partly by his desire of an alliance with Spain, and partly by the indignation of his own subjects at the way in which the French were undermining the independence of Brittany. Henry gave Brittany defensive aid; but after the duchess Anne had married Charles VIII of France, he felt bound to fulfil his obligations to Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, and also to the German king Maximilian, by an invasion of France in 1492. His allies, however, were not equally scrupulous or equally able to fulfil their obligations to him; and after besieging Boulogne for some little time, he received very advantageous offers from the French king and made peace with him.

Now Perkin Warbeck had first appeared in Ireland in 1491, and had somehow been persuaded there to personate Richard, Duke of York, the younger of the two princes murdered in the Tower, pretending that he had escaped, though his brother had been killed. Charles VIII, then expecting war with England, called him to France, recognized his pretensions and gave him a retinue; but after the peace he dismissed him. Then Margaret of Burgundy received him as her nephew, and Maximilian, now estranged from Henry, recognized him as king of England. With a fleet given him by Maximilian he attempted to land at Deal, but sailed away to Ireland and, not succeeding very well there either, sailed farther to Scotland, where James IV received him with open arms, married him to an earl's daughter and made a brief and futile invasion of England along with him. But in 1497 he thought best to dismiss him, and Perkin, after attempting something again in Ireland, landed in Cornwall with a small body of men.

Already Cornwall had risen in insurrection that year, not liking the taxation imposed for the purpose of repelling the Scotch invasion. A host of the country people, led first by a blacksmith, but afterwards by a nobleman, marched up towards London and were only defeated at Blackheath. But the Cornishmen were quite ready for another revolt, and indeed had invited Perkin to their shores. He had little fight in him, however, and after a futile siege of Exeter and an advance to Taunton he stole away and took sanctuary at Beaulieu in Hampshire. But, being assured of his life, he surrendered, was brought to London, and was only executed two years later, when, being imprisoned near the Earl of Warwick in the Tower, he inveigled that simple-minded youth into a project of escape. For this Warwick, too, was tried, condemned and executed — no doubt to deliver Henry from repeated conspiracies in his favour.

Henry had by this time several children, of whom the eldest, Arthur, had been proposed in infancy for a bridegroom to Catherine, daughter of Ferdinand of Aragon. The match had always been kept in view, but its completion depended greatly on the assurance Ferdinand and Isabella could feel of Henry's secure position upon the throne. At last Catherine was brought to England and was married to Prince Arthur at St Paul's on the 14th of November 1501. The lad was just over fifteen and the co-habitation of the couple was wisely delayed; but he died on the 2nd of April following. Another match was presently proposed for Catherine with the king's second son, Henry, which only took effect when the latter had become king himself [cf. Henry VIII]. Meanwhile Henry's eldest daughter Margaret was married to James IV of Scotland — a match distinctly intended to promote international peace, and make possible that ultimate union which actually resulted from it. The espousals had taken place at Richmond in 1502, and the marriage was celebrated in Scotland the year after.

In the interval between these two events Henry lost his queen, who died on the 11th of February 1503, and during the remainder of his reign he made proposals in various quarters for a second marriage — proposals in which political objects were always the chief consideration; but none of them led to any result. In his latter years he became unpopular from the extortions practised by his two instruments, Empson and Dudley, under the authority of antiquated statutes. From the beginning of his reign he had been accumulating money, mainly for his own security against intrigues and conspiracies, and avarice had grown upon him with success. He died in April 1509, undoubtedly the richest prince in Christendom. He was not a niggard, however, in his expenditure. Before his death he had finished the hospital of the Savoy and made provision for the magnificent chapel at Westminster which bears his name. His money-getting was but part of his statesmanship, and for his statesmanship his country owes him not a little gratitude. He not only terminated a disastrous civil war and brought under control the spirit of ancient feudalism, but with a clear survey of the conditions of foreign powers he secured England in almost uninterrupted peace while he developed her commerce, strengthened her slender navy and built, apparently for the first time, a naval dock at Portsmouth.

In addition to his sons Arthur and Henry, Henry VII had several daughters, one of whom, Margaret, married James IV, King of Scotland, and another, Mary, became the wife of Louis XII of France, and afterwards of Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk.

( Swrony )

+- Henry VI's Minority (1421-1471 AD)

2009-12-22T08:09:00.000-08:00

Henry VI - The last king of the Lancastrian dynasty, Henry VI was born at Windsor Castle on 6th December, 1421 and became King of England in his cradle, he was barely nine months old when his famous father, Henry V, died of dysentry on campaign in France. Two months later he became King of France also, when his grandfather, the mentally unstable Charles VI, died.

During Henry's minority, the war in France had been executed loyally and ably by his paternal uncle, John, Duke of Bedford. He struggled with the almost impossible task of retaining his brother's conquests in France. England was ruled by a council lead by Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, the youngest of Henry V's brothers.

In November 1429, the young king was considered old enough to undergo the arduous coronation ceremony and was crowned at Westminster Abbey at eight years old. The following year, at the age of nine, he crossed to his French kingdom and was crowned King of France at Notre Dame. In the streets of Paris he was observed from an upper storey window by his notorious grandmother, Isabeau of Bavaria, the wanton widow of Charles VI, whom the young king courteously doffed his hat to.

Henry's mother, Catherine of Valois, died in 1437 amidst scandal, when it was discovered that the Dowager Queen had contacted a secret marriage with her Welsh clerk of the wardrobe, Owen Tudor and had borne him several children, three sons and a daughter. Henry later created the eldest of these half-brothers, Edmund and Jasper Tudor, Earls of Richmond and Pembroke respectively. Both were later to play leading parts in the Wars of the Roses, the elder, Edmund was to become the father of King Henry VII, the founder of England's Tudor dynasty. Owen Tudor was summoned before the king's council to explain his conduct, but was released without punishment, he ended his days in 1461, when after fighting on the Lancastrian side at the Battle of Mortimer's Cross, he was beheaded on the orders of Henry's supplanter, Edward IV.

The wheel of fortune had begun to turn against the English in France. Joan of Arc lead the French to victory, and by 1453, all of the great Henry V's conquests, apart from Calais, were lost.

Personal Rule

According to the terms of a peace agreement with France, Henry married Margaret of Anjou, daughter of Rene, Duke of Anjou and titular King of Jerusalem and Isabella, Duchess of Lorraine. Margaret was also the niece of the French King, Charles VII. The match was unpopular amongst disaffected elements in England. Margaret, unlike her husband, was a strong headed character, who was unyielding and belligerent, none of which augured well for her future in England.

Henry himself was a gentle, devout and kindly man, but early in his reign is said to have been "unsteadfast of wit". He did not appear to enjoy wearing the magnificent clothing expected of a sovereign and often dressed simply "like a farmer". Unlike his warlike father, Henry possessed a strong aversion to violence and was deeply, even obsessively, devoted to religion.

Contemporary Description of Henry

'He was a man of pure simplicity of mind, truthful almost to a fault. He never made a promise he did not keep, never knowingly did an injury to anyone. Rectitude and justice ruled his conduct in all public affairs. Devout himself, he sought to cherish a love for religion in others. He would exhort his visitors, particularly the young, to pursue virtue and eschew evil. He considered sports and the pleasures of the world as frivolous, and devoted his leisure to reading the scriptures and the old chronicles. Most decorous himself when attending public worship, he obliged his courtiers to enter the sacred edifice without swords or spears, and to refrain from interupting the devotion of others by conversing within its precincts
.
He delighted in female society, and blamed that immodest dress, which left exposed the maternal parts of the neck. "Fie, fie, for shame!" he exclaimed "forsooth ye be to blame." Fond of encouraging youth in the paths of virtue he would frequently converse familiarly with the scholars from his colllege of Eton, when they visited his servants at Windsor Castle. He generally concluded with this address, adding a present of money: "Be good lads, meek and docile, and attend to your religion."

He was liberal to the poor, and lived among his dependants as a father among his children. He readily forgave those who had offended him. When one of his servants had been robbed, he sent him a present of twenty nobles, desiring him to be more careful of his property in the future, and requesting him to forgive the thief. Passing one day from St. Albans to Cripplegate, he saw a quarter of a man impaled there for treason. Greatly shocked he exclaimed "Take it away, take it away, I will have no man so cruelly treated for my account."

In his dress he was plain, and would not wear the shoes with the upturned points, then so much in fashion, and considered the distinguishing mark of a man of quality. Where are warm baths in which they say the men of that country customarily refresh and wash themselves, the King, looking into the baths, saw in them men wholly naked with every garment cast off. At which he was greatly displeased, and went away quickly, abhorring such nudity as a great offence.'

----- John Blakman

The Wars of the Roses

In 1453, at the age of 32, Henry VI began to exhibit signs of serious mental illness. By means of a "sudden fright" he entered into a trance-like state reacting to and recognising no one. Catatonic schizophrenia or depressive stupor have been suggested as a likely diagnosis. This was probably an inheritance from his grandfather, Charles VI of France, who himself suffered from bouts of schizophrenia, which is reported to have come on suddenly in 1392 when he was then aged 24, into which he then suffered relapses for the next 30 years. Charles VI's mother, Joanna de Bourbon, also exhibited signs of mental illness, as did various ancestors of hers, including Louis I, Duke of Bourbon, Peter I, Duke of Bourbon, Louis II, Duke of Bourbon.

The king's cousin, Richard, Duke of York was appointed protector, to the annoyance of the Queen, who strongly felt that she and her party should govern England. An intense personal rivalry developed between Richard of York and Margaret's favourite, Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset. Somerset was descended from John of Gaunt's liaison with Catherine Swynford.

Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York, stood very near to the throne, his mother, Anne Mortimer, was by the strict rules of primogeniture the true heir of Richard II and York was her only son. Anne's claim derived from her descent from Edward III's second surviving son, Lionel of Antwerp, Duke of Clarence. Henry VI's claim, although in the direct male line, was only through Edward's fourth son, John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster. Plantagenet Genealogy

Two months later, Queen Margaret gave birth to a son , Edward of Lancaster. Rumours abounded, fed by the Yorkists, that the child was not the feeble minded king's but Somerset's, all of which threw more fuel on the fires of discontent. The Queen, "a strong laboured woman", was fiercely protective of her son and his rights. Henry eventually recovered his senses and when showed his son, declared himself pleased and enquired about the child's godfathers. Adding to existing doubts about the child's paternity, he declared that Edward must have been fathered by the Holy Ghost.

York, dismissed from office, was discontented. His position, he realised, was now a precarious one, exposed as he was to the suspicion and venom of the Queen, who once again controlled the government.

A great council was called at Leicester. York and his allies, Richard, Earl of Warwick and his father, Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury, suspecting unimpartial treatment, travelled south with an army. Attempts at discussion between the factions evoked further anger on both sides.

The First Battle of St. Albans was fought on 22nd May 1455. Margaret's favourite, Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset was killed and Henry captured by the victorious Yorkists. York was appointed Protector of England. Margaret, true to character, was not going to accept this meekly. She gathered an army to advance her son's cause and York, Salisbury and Warwick were forced into flight before her.

The rebel lords gathered support and in retaliation took London. Warwick met the forces loyal to the king at Northampton, defeated them, and took the unfortunate Henry captive back to London. York returned from exile and laid formal claim to the throne. When asked why he had not previously done so, he responded that "though right for a time lies silent, yet it rotteth not, nor shall it perish." A compromise was agreed on, whereupon Henry VI was to keep the throne for the rest of his lifetime but the

succession was to go to York and his heirs. No one for a moment expected that the spirited Margaret would accept the disinheriting of her son and this proved to be the case.

Queen Margaret lead a Lancastrian army to attack the Duke of York at his castle at Sandal. The Duke was killed leading an impulsive charge against the Lancastrian forces, as was Salisbury and York's second son, the seventeen year old Edmund, Earl of Rutland, whose pleas for his life were ignored. The Queen had their heads impaled on spikes on the city walls of York.

Edward, Earl of March, York's able eldest son, aged eighteen and now leader of the Yorkist cause, retaliated and defeated the Lancastrians at Mortimers Cross. He continued to utterly crush the Lancastrian cause at the decisive and bloody Battle of Towton in Yorkshire. Margaret and her son took flight to Scotland where they found refuge and the new Duke of York was crowned at Westminster as King Edward IV. King Henry VI was eventually taken prisoner in Lancashire and imprisoned in the Tower of London.

The Restoration of Henry VI

Edward IV shocked the nobility when he announced he had been secretly married to Elizabeth Woodville, the beautiful but penniless widow of a Lancastrian knight. The new King had hoped to make the highly attractive Elizabeth his mistress, but she held out for marriage and Edward eventually succumbed to her charms. The old established nobility, and in particular Warwick, where alienated by the meteoric advancement of the new Queen's large and needy family. In 1470, Warwick, later referred to as the Kingmaker, seething with hatred of the "upstart" Woodvilles, changed his allegiance to the House of Lancaster and was re-united with Margaret of Anjou under the auspices of Louis XI.

Edward IV was forced to flee the country before Warwick and King Henry VI was briefly restored. A sad and pitiful figure, he was paraded through the streets of London in a shabby blue gown by George Neville, Archbishop of York and set up as a puppet King, whom the ambitious Warwick ruled through. Edward IV returned to England and defeated and killed his cousin Warwick at the Battle of Barnet. On Edward's return to London, Henry greeted him, stating, "Cousin of York, you are very welcome. I hold my life to be in no danger in your hands." The Yorkist King returned Henry to his former lodgings in the Tower and rode out to meet Margaret and her son who had landed in England on the day that Barnet was fought.

Their two armies clashed at Tewkesbury on 4th May 1471. Edward, the Lancastrian Prince of Wales, was killed either in battle or during its aftermath, contemporary accounts conflict on the point, some stating he was killed in 'plain battle', others claiming he was taken prisoner and murdered after the battle by Edward IV, his brother Richard of Gloucester and Edward's favourite, Lord Hastings.

The fate of Margaret of Anjou

Queen Margaret was defeated at last by the death of the son she had fought so long and hard for. She was imprisoned in the Tower of London. Her beloved son's widow, Anne Neville, later married one of his suspected killers, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, through this marriage, Gloucester eventually obtained much of Warwick's vast estates.

Margaret's ageing but ebullient father, Rene of Anjou, remained unconcerned about his daughter's fate, having recently remarried, he was preoccupied with his new young wife. Margaret was later removed to Windsor Castle, then on to Wallingford. She remained a prisoner until she was ransomed by her kinsman, Louis XI, at the Treaty of Picquigny in 1475. The embittered ex-Queen retired to her native Anjou, where she took up residence at the Chateau of Dampierre, she died there in August, 1482, aged fifty-three.

The Murder of Henry VI

Henry VI met his death in the Tower, on the night of the Vigil of the Ascension, 21st -22nd May, 1471. The demise of his son had sealed his fate. While Edward of Lancaster still lived, he rendered the removal of Henry pointless. The Yorkist version of his end, that he died of "pure melancholy and displeasure" on hearing on of his son's death was not much accepted, even at the time.
The majority of contemporary chroniclers beleived Henry had been murdered. Richard, Duke of Gloucester is named as the most likely candidate. After the passage of over five hundred years this can never be properly ascertained, but Richard of Gloucester was known to be present at the Tower that night. Ultimately, the responsibility for Henry's murder can only be laid at the feet of Edward IV. Edward had now exterminated the direct line of the House of Lancaster with ruthless efficiency.

Henry was buried at Chertsey. The cult of 'Holy King Henry', although actively discouraged by Edward IV, grew up after his death, when miracles were supposed to have occurred on pilgrimage to his tomb. Henry's body was moved to Windsor by Richard III, an act perhaps occasioned by an uneasy conscience and his overriding desire for the souls of his victims to rest in peace. An unsuccessful attempt was made by Henry VII, the first Tudor monarch, to have his half-uncle canonized.

Due to controversy over the manner of his death, George V gave permission to exhume the body of King Henry VI in 1910. The skeleton was found to have been dismembered before being placed in the box and not all the bones were present. Three very worn teeth were found and the only piece of jaw present had lost its teeth before death. The bones were recorded as being those of a strong man measuring five feet nine to five feet ten inches tall. Light brown hair found matted with blood on the skull confirmed that Henry VI had died as a result of violence.

+- Henry V (1387 - 1422 AD)

2009-12-22T06:09:00.000-08:00

HENRY V - King of England, son of King Henry IV by Mary de Bohun, was born at Monmouth, in August 1387. On his father's exile in 1398, Richard II took the boy into his own charge, and treated him kindly.

Next year the Lancastrian revolution forced Henry into precocious prominence as heir to the throne. From October 1400 the administration of Wales was conducted in his name; less than three years later he was in actual command of the English forces and fought against the Percies at Shrewsbury. The Welsh revolt absorbed his energies till 1408. Then through the king's ill-health he began to take a wider share in politics. From January 1410, helped by his uncles Henry Beaufort and Thomas Beaufort, he had practical control of the government. Both in foreign and domestic policy he differed from the king, who in November 1411 discharged the prince from the council.

The quarrel of father and son was political only, though it is probable that the Beauforts had discussed the abdication of Henry IV, and their opponents certainly endeavoured to defame the prince. It may be that to political enmity the tradition of Henry's riotous youth, immortalized by Shakespeare, is partly due. To that tradition Henry's strenuous life in war and politics is a sufficient general contradiction. The most famous incident, his quarrel with the chief justice, has no contemporary authority and was first related by Sir Thomas Elyot in 1531. The story of Falstaff originated partly in Henry's early friendship for Oldcastle. That friendship, and the prince's political opposition to Archbishop Arundel, perhaps encouraged Lollard hopes. If so, their disappointment may account for the statements of ecclesiastical writers, like Walsingham, that Henry on becoming king was changed suddenly into a new man.

Henry succeeded his father on the 20th of March 1413. With no past to embarrass him, and with no dangerous rivals, his practical experience had full scope. He had to deal with three main problems — the restoration of domestic peace, the healing of schism in the Church and the recovery of English prestige in Europe. Henry grasped them all together, and gradually built upon them a yet wider policy. From the first he made it clear that he would rule England as the head of a united nation, and that past differences were to be forgotten. Richard II was honourably reinterred; the young Mortimer was taken into favour; the heirs of those who had suffered in the last reign were restored gradually to their titles and estates. With Oldcastle Henry used his personal influence in vain, and the gravest domestic danger was Lollard discontent. But the king's firmness nipped the movement in the bud (Jan. 1414), and made his own position as ruler secure. Save for the abortive Scrope and Cambridge plot in favour of Mortimer in July 1415, the rest of his reign was free from serious trouble at home. Henry could now turn his attention to foreign affairs.

A writer of the next generation was the first to allege that Henry was encouraged by ecclesiastical statesmen to enter on the French war as a means of diverting attention from home troubles. For this story there is no foundation. The restoration of domestic peace was the king's first care, and until it was assured he could not embark on any wider enterprise abroad. Nor was that enterprise one of idle conquest. Old commercial disputes and the support which the French had lent to Glendower gave a sufficient excuse for war, whilst the disordered state of France afforded no security for peace. Henry may have regarded the assertion of his own claims as part of his kingly duty, but in any case a permanent settlement of the national quarrel was essential to the success of his world policy.

The campaign of 1415, with its brilliant conclusion at Agincourt (October 25), was only the first step. Two years of patient preparation followed. The command of the sea was secured by driving the Genoese allies of the French out of the Channel. A successful diplomacy detached the emperor Sigismund from France, and by the Treaty of Canterbury paved the way to end the schism in the Church. So in 1417 the war was renewed on a larger scale. Lower Normandy was quickly conquered, Rouen cut off from Paris and besieged. The French were paralysed by the disputes of Burgundians and Armagnacs. Henry skilfully played them off one against the other, without relaxing his warlike energy.

In January 1419 Rouen fell. By August the English were outside the walls of Paris. The intrigues of the French parties culminated in the assassination of John of Burgundy by the dauphin's partisans at Montereau (September 10, 1419). Philip, the new duke, and the French court threw themselves into Henry's arms. After six months' negotiation Henry was by the Treaty of Troyes recognized as heir and regent of France, and on the 2nd of June 1420 married Catherine, the king's daughter. He was now at the height of his power. His eventual success in France seemed certain.

He shared with Sigismund the credit of having ended the Great Schism by obtaining the election of Pope Martin V. All the states of western Europe were being brought within the web of his diplomacy. The headship of Christendom was in his grasp, and schemes for a new crusade began to take shape. He actually sent an envoy to collect information in the East; but his plans were cut short by death. A visit to England in 1421 was interrupted by the defeat of Clarence at Bauge. The hardships of the longer winter siege of Meaux broke down his health, and he died at Bois de Vincennes on the 31st of August 1422.

Henry's last words were a wish that he might live to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem. They are significant. His ideal was founded consciously on the models of Arthur and Godfrey as national king and leader of Christendom. So he is the typical medieval hero. For that very reason his schemes were doomed to end in disaster, since the time was come for a new departure. Yet he was not reactionary. His policy was constructive: a firm central government supported by parliament; church reform on conservative lines; commercial development; and the maintenance of national prestige. His aims in some respects anticipated those of his Tudor successors, but he would have accomplished them on medieval lines as a constitutional ruler. His success was due to the power of his personality. He could train able lieutenants, but at his death there was no one who could take his place as leader. War, diplomacy and civil administration were all dependent on his guidance. His dazzling achievements as a general have obscured his more sober qualities as a ruler, and even the sound strategy, with which he aimed to be master of the narrow seas. If he was not the founder of the English navy he was one of the first to realize its true importance.

Henry had so high a sense of his own rights that he was merciless to disloyalty. But he was scrupulous of the rights of others, and it was his eager desire to further the cause of justice that impressed his French contemporaries. He has been charged with cruelty as a religious persecutor; but in fact he had as prince opposed the harsh policy of Archbishop Arundel, and as king sanctioned a more moderate course. Lollard executions during his reign had more often a political than a religious reason. To be just with sternness was in his eyes a duty. So in his warfare, though he kept strict discipline and allowed no wanton violence, he treated severely all who had in his opinion transgressed. In his personal conduct he was chaste, temperate and sincerely pious. He delighted in sport and all manly exercises. At the same time he was cultured, with a taste for literature, art and music. Henry lies buried in Westminster Abbey. His tomb was stripped of its splendid adornment during the Reformation.

Other Local Resources:
Henry V as a Boy
Henry V as Prince of Wales from a Hoccleve MS
Henry V portrait in an Illuminated Manuscript, c.1451-1480
Marriage of Henry V and Catherine by John Rous, c.1485
Henry V and his Court
Henry V and his Army
The Battle of Azincourt
The Funeral Procession of Henry V
Tomb of Henry V in Westminster Abbey
Later Engraving of Henry V
Helmet, Saddle, and Shield of Henry V
The Great Seal of King Henry V
Henry V's Coinage (Noble, Half Noble, Quarter Noble)
Henry V's Coinage (Groat, Half Groat, Penny)
House of Lancaster
King Henry IV
King Henry VI
Catherine of Valois
John, Duke of Bedford
Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester
The Agincourt Carol, on the Victory at Agincourt

+- Henry IV (1367-1413 AD)

2009-12-17T12:13:00.000-08:00

HENRY IV - , son of John of Gaunt, by Blanche, daughter of Henry, Duke of Lancaster, was born on the 3rd of April 1367, at Bolingbroke in Lincolnshire.

As early as 1377 he is styled Earl of Derby, and in 1380 he married Mary de Bohun (d.1394), one of the co-heiresses of the last Earl of Hereford. In 1387 he supported his uncle Thomas, Duke of Gloucester, in his armed opposition to Richard II and his favourites. Afterwards, probably through his father's influence, he changed sides. He was already distinguished for his knightly prowess, and for some years devoted himself to adventure. He thought of going on the crusade to Barbary; but instead, in July 1390, went to serve with the Teutonic knights in Lithuania.

He came home in the following spring, but next year went again to Prussia, whence he journeyed by way of Venice to Cyprus and Jerusalem. After his return to England he sided with his father and the king against Gloucester, and in 1397 was made Duke of Hereford. In January 1398 he quarrelled with the Duke of Norfolk, who charged him with treason. The dispute was to have been decided in the lists at Coventry in September; but at the last moment Richard intervened and banished them both. When John of Gaunt died in February 1399 Richard, contrary to his promise, confiscated the estates of Lancaster. Henry then felt himself free, and made friends with the exiled Arundels.

Early in July, whilst Richard was absent in Ireland, he landed at Ravenspur in Yorkshire. He was at once joined by the Percies; and Richard, abandoned by his friends, surrendered at Flint on the 19th of August. In the parliament, which assembled on the 30th of September, Richard was forced to abdicate. Henry then made his claim as coming by right line of blood from King Henry III, and through his right to recover the realm which was in point to be undone for default of governance and good law. Parliament formally accepted him, and thus Henry became king, "not so much by title of blood as by popular election" (Capgrave).

The new dynasty had consequently a constitutional basis. With this Henry's own political sympathies well accorded. But though the revolution of 1399 was popular in form, its success was due to an oligarchical faction. From the start Henry was embarrassed by the power and pretensions of the Percies. Nor was his hereditary title so good as that of the Mortimers. To domestic troubles was added the complication of disputes with Scotland and France. The first danger came from the friends of Richard, who plotted prematurely, and were crushed in January 1400. During the summer of 1400 Henry made a not over-successful expedition to Scotland. The French court would not accept his overtures, and it was only in the summer of 1401 that a truce was patched up by the restoration of Richard's child-queen, Isabella of Valois.

Meantime a more serious trouble had arisen through the outbreak of the Welsh revolt under Owen Glendower. In 1400 and again in each of the two following autumns Henry invaded Wales in vain. The success of the Percies over the Scots at Homildon Hill (Sept. 1402) was no advantage. Henry Percy (Hotspur) and his father, the Earl of Northumberland, thought their services ill-requited, and finally made common cause with the partisans of Mortimer and the Welsh. The plot was frustrated by Hotspur's defeat at Shrewsbury (21st of July 1403); and Northumberland for the time submitted. Henry had, however, no one on whom he could rely outside his own family, except Archbishop Arundel. The Welsh were unsubdued; the French were plundering the southern coast; Northumberland was fomenting trouble in the north.

The crisis came in 1405. A plot to carry off the young Mortimers was defeated; but Mowbray, the earl marshal, who had been privy to it, raised a rebellion in the north supported by Archbishop Scrope of York. Mowbray and Scrope were taken and beheaded; Northumberland escaped into Scotland. For the execution of the archbishop Henry was personally responsible, and he could never free himself from its odium. Popular belief regarded his subsequent illness as a judgment for his impiety. Apart from ill-health and unpopularity Henry had succeeded — relations with Scotland were secured by the capture of James, the heir to the crown; Northumberland was at last crushed at Bramham Moor (Feb. 1408); and a little later the Welsh revolt was mastered.

Henry, stricken with sore disease, was unable to reap the advantage. His necessities had all along enabled the Commons to extort concessions in parliament, until in 1406 he was forced to nominate a council and govern by its advice. However, with Archbishop Arundel as his chancellor, Henry still controlled the government. But in January 1410 Arundel had to give way to the king's half-brother, Thomas Beaufort. Beaufort and his brother Henry, Bishop of Winchester, were opposed to Arundel and supported by the Prince of Wales [later Henry V]. For two years the real government rested with the prince and the council.

Under the prince's influence the English intervened in France in 1411 on the side of Burgundy. In this, and in some matters of home politics, the king disagreed with his ministers. There is good reason to suppose that the Beauforts had gone so far as to contemplate a forced abdication on the score of the king's ill-health. However, in November 1411 Henry showed that he was still capable of vigorous action by discharging the prince and his supporters. Arundel again became chancellor, and the king's second son, Thomas, took his brother's place. The change was further marked by the sending of an expedition to France in support of Orleans. But Henry's health was failing steadily. On the 20th of March 1413, whilst praying in Westminster Abbey he was seized with a fainting fit, and died that same evening in the Jerusalem Chamber. At the time he was believed to have been a leper, but as it would appear without sufficient reason.

As a young man Henry had been chivalrous and adventurous, and in politics anxious for good government and justice. As king the loss and failure of friends made him cautious, suspicious and cruel. The persecution of the Lollards, which began with the burning statute of 1401, may be accounted for by Henry's own orthodoxy, or by the influence of Archbishop Arundel, his one faithful friend. But that political Lollardry was strong is shown by the proposal in the parliament of 1410 for a wholesale confiscation of ecclesiastical property. Henry's faults may be excused by his difficulties. Throughout he was practical and steadfast, and he deserved credit for maintaining his principles as a constitutional ruler. So after all his troubles he founded his dynasty firmly, and passed on the crown to his son with a better title. He is buried under a fine tomb at Canterbury.

By Mary Bohun Henry had four sons: his successor Henry V, Thomas, Duke of Clarence, John, Duke of Bedford, and Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester; and two daughters, Blanche, who married Louis III, elector palatine of the Rhine, and Philippa, who married Eric XIII, King of Sweden. Henry's second wife was Joan, or Joanna, (c.1370-1437), daughter of Charles the Bad, King of Navarre, and widow of John IV or V, Duke of Brittany, who survived until July 1437. By her he had no children.

+- Henry III (1207-1272 AD)

2009-12-17T09:58:00.000-08:00

Henry III - , the first monarch to be crowned in his minority, inherited the throne at age nine. His reign began immersed in the rebellion created by his father, King John. London and most of the southeast were in the hands of the French Dauphin Louis and the northern regions were under the control of rebellious barons - only the midlands and southwest were loyal to the boy king. The barons, however, rallied under Henry's first regent, William the Marshall, and expelled the French Dauphin in 1217. William the Marshall governed until his death in 1219; Hugh de Burgh, the last of the justiciars to rule with the power of a king, governed until Henry came to the throne in earnest at age twenty-five.

A variety of factors coalesced in Henry's reign to plant the first seeds of English nationalism. Throughout his minority, the barons held firm to the ideal of written restrictions on royal authority and reissued Magna Carta several times. The nobility wished to bind the king to same feudal laws under which they were held. The emerging class of free men also demanded the same protection from the king's excessive control. Barons, nobility, and free men began viewing England as a community rather than a mere aggregation of independent manors, villages, and outlying principalities. In addition to the restrictions outlined in Magna Carta, the barons asked to be consulted in matters of state and called together as a Great Council. Viewing themselves as the natural counselors of the king, they sought control over the machinery of government, particularly in the appointment of chief government positions. The Exchequer and the Chancery were separated from the rest of the government to decrease the king's chances of ruling irresponsibly.

Nationalism, such as it was at this early stage, manifested in the form of opposition to Henry's actions. He infuriated the barons by granting favors and appointments to foreigners rather than the English nobility. Peter des Roches, the Bishop of Winchester and Henry's prime educator, introduced a number of Frenchmen from Poitou into the government; many Italians entered into English society through Henry's close ties to the papacy. His reign coincided with an expansion of papal power Ð the Church became, in effect, a massive European monarchy Ð and the Church became as creative as it was excessive in extorting money from England. England was expected to assume a large portion of financing the myriad officials employed throughout Christendom as well as providing employment and parishes for Italians living abroad. Henry's acquiescence to the demands of Rome initiated a backlash of protest from his subjects: laymen were denied opportunity to be nominated for vacant ecclesiastical offices and clergymen lost any chance of advancement.

Matters came to a head in 1258. Henry levied extortionate taxes to pay for debts incurred through war with Wales, failed campaigns in France, and an extensive program of ecclesiastical building. Inept diplomacy and military defeat led Henry to sell his hereditary claims to all the Angevin possessions in France except Gascony. When he assumed the considerable debts of the papacy in its fruitless war with Sicily, his barons demanded sweeping reforms and the king was in no position to offer resistance. Henry was forced to agree to the Provisions of Oxford, a document placing the barons in virtual control of the realm. A council of fifteen men, comprised of both the king's supporters and detractors, effected a situation whereby Henry could do nothing without the council's knowledge and consent. The magnates handled every level of government with great unity initially but gradually succumbed to petty bickering; the Provisions of Oxford remained in force for only years. Henry reasserted his authority and denied the Provisions, resulting in the outbreak of civil war in 1264. Edward, Henry's eldest son, led the king's forces with the opposition commanded by Simon de Montfort, Henry's brother-in-law. At the Battle of Lewes, in Sussex, de Montfort defeated Edward and captured both king and son - and found himself in control of the government.

Simon de Montfort held absolute power after subduing Henry but was a champion of reform. The nobility supported him because of his royal ties and belief in the Provisions of Oxford. De Montfort, with two close associates, selected a council of nine (whose function was similar to the earlier council of fifteen) and ruled in the king's name. De Montfort recognized the need to gain the backing of smaller landowners and prosperous townsfolk: in 1264, he summoned knights from each shire in addition to the normal high churchmen and nobility to an early pre-Parliament, and in 1265 invited burgesses from selected towns. Although Parliament as an institution was yet to be formalized, the latter session was a precursor to both the elements of Parliament: the House of Lords and the House of Commons.

Later in 1265, de Montfort lost the support of one of the most powerful barons, the Earl of Gloucester, and Edward also managed to escape. The two gathered an army and defeated de Montfort at the Battle of Evasham, Worcestershire. de Montfort was slain and Henry was released; Henry resumed control of the throne but, for the remainder of his reign, Edward exercised the real power of the throne in his father's stead. The old king, after a long reign of fifty-six years, died in 1272. Although a failure as a politician and soldier, his reign was significant for defining the English monarchical position until the end of the fifteenth century: kingship limited by law.

+- Henry II (1133 - 1189 AD)

2009-12-13T09:26:00.000-08:00

Parentage and Early Life : Arguably one of the most effective Kings ever to wear the English crown and the first of the great Plantagenet dynasty, the future Henry II was born at Le Mans, Anjou on 5th March, 1133. He was the son of that ill-matched pair, Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou and Matilda, (known as the Empress, from her first marriage to the Holy Roman Emperor) the daughter of Henry I of England.
Henry's parents never cared for each other, there's was a union of convenience. Henry I chose Geoffrey (pictured left) to sire his grandchildren because his lands were strategically placed on the Norman frontiers and he required the support of Geoffrey's father, his erstwhile enemy, Fulk of Anjou. He accordingly forced his highly reluctant daughter to marry the fifteen year old Geoffrey. The pair disliked each other from the outset of their union and neither was of a nature to pretend otherwise and so the scene was set for an extremely stormy marriage. They were, however, finally prevailed upon by the formidable Henry I to do their duty and produce an heir to England. They had three sons, Henry was the eldest of these and always the favourite of his adoring mother.
When the young Henry was a few months old, his delighted grandfather, Henry I, crossed over the channel from England to see his new heir and is said to have dandled the child on his knee, he was to grow very attached to his new grandson, the old warrior was said to spend much time playing with the young Henry.
Henry's father Geoffrey's nickname derived from a sprig of bloom, or Planta Genista, that he liked to sport in his helmet .Thus was coined the surname of one of England's greatest dynasties, which ruled the country for the rest of the medieval era, although Plantagenet was not adopted as a surname until the mid 15th century. Henry's was a vast inheritance, from his father, he received the Counties of Anjou and Maine, from his mother, the Duchy of Normandy and his claim to the Kingdom of England. Henry married the legendary heiress, Eleanor of Aquitaine, which added Aquitaine and Poitou to his dominions. He then owned more land in France than the French King himself.

Reign : On the death of King Stephen in 1154, Henry came to the English throne at the age of 21 in accordance with the terms of the Treaty of Wallingford.
A short but strongly built man of leonine appearance, Henry II was possessed of an immense dynamic energy and a formidable temper. He had the red hair of the Plantagenets, grey eyes that grew bloodshot in anger and a round, freckled face. He spent so much time in the saddle that his legs became bowed. Henry's voice was reported to have been harsh and cracked, he did not care for magnificent clothing and was never still. The new King was intelligent and had acquired an immense knowledge both of languages and law.

Eleanor of Aqiutaine : Eleanor of Aquitaine (depicted right), Henry's wife, was the daughter of William X, Duke of Aquitaine and Aenor de Chatellerault. She had previously been the wife of Louis VII, King of France, who had divorced her prior to her marriage to Henry. It was rumoured that the pair had been lovers before her divorce, as she had reportedly also been the paramour of Henry's father, Geoffrey. (The formidable Matilda's reaction to this event has unfortunately not been recorded.)
Eleanor was eleven years older than Henry, but in the early days of their marriage that did not seem to matter. Both were strong characters, used to getting their own way, the result of two such ill matched temperaments was an extremely tempestuous union. Beautiful, intelligent, cultured and powerful, Eleanor was a remarkable woman. One of the great female personalities of her age, she had been celebrated and idolized in the songs of the troubadours of her native Aquitaine.
Henry was possessed of the fearful Angevin temper, apparently a dominant family trait. In his notorious uncontrollable rages he would lie on the floor and chew at the rushes and was never slow to anger. Legend clung to the House of Anjou, one such ran that they were descended from no less a person than Satan himself. It was related that Melusine, the daughter of Satan, was the demon ancestress of the Angevins. Her husband the Count of Anjou was perplexed when Melusine always left church prior to hearing of the mass. After pondering the matter he had her forcibly restrained by his knights while the service took place. Melusine reportedly tore herself from their grasp and flew through the roof, taking two of the couple's children with her and was never seen again.
Henry and Eleanor had a large brood of children. Sadly, their first born, William (b.1153) created Count of Poiters, the traditional title of the heirs to the Dukes of Aquitaine, died at the age of 2 at Wallingford Castle. He was buried at the feet of his great-grandfather, Henry I.
Like his grandfather before him, Henry was a man of strong passions and a serial adulterer. When Henry introduced his illegitimate son, Geoffrey, to the royal nursery, Eleanor was furious, Geoffrey had been born in the early days of their marriage, the result of a dalliance with Hikenai, a prostitute. Eleanor was deeply insulted and the rift between the couple grew steadily into a gaping gulf.
On inheriting England's crown, the young Henry Plantagenet eagerly and with characteristic energy set about restoring law and order in his new kingdom. All illegal castles erected in King Stephen's anarchic reign were demolished. He was a tireless administrator and clarified and overhauled the entire English judicial system.

Henry II and Thomas a Beckett : Henry's quarrels with Thomas à Beckett have cast a long shadow over his reign. The son of a wealthy London merchant of Norman extraction, Beckett was appointed Chancellor.
Beckett was at first worldly and unlike the King, dressed extravagantly. A story is related that riding through London together on a cold winters day, Henry saw a pauper shivering in his rags. He asked Thomas would it not be charitable for someone to give the man a cloak, Beckett agreed that it would, whereupon Henry laughingly grasped Thomas' expensive fur cloak. There followed an unseemly struggle in which the King attempted to wrest the unwilling Beckett's cloak from him. Finally succeeding and most amused at Thomas's reaction, he threw it to the beggar.
Beckett was sent on a mission to the court of France to negotiate a marriage between Henry and Eleanor's eldest surviving son, known as Young Henry and Margaret, the daughter of the King of France by his second marriage. This he carried out with aplomb, travelling with a great retinue, his lavish style made a vivid impression on the French.
On the death of Theobald, Archbishop of Canterbury, Henry II decided to appoint Thomas Beckett to the position. He assumed that Thomas would make an amenable Archbishop through whom he could gain control of the churches legal system. Beckett, however, was unwilling to oblige and on his appointment resigned the Chancellorship. Henry flew into a furious rage. Beckett, undeterred, then entered into disagreement with the king regarding the rights of church and state when he prevented a cleric found guilty of rape and murder from recieving punishment in the lay court.
A council was held at Westminster in October 1163, Beckett was not a man to compromise, neither, however, was Henry. Eventually Beckett agreed to adhere to the 'ancient customs of the realm'. Adamant to win in the matter, Henry proceeded to clearly define those ancient customs in a document referred to as the Constitutions of Clarendon. Beckett did eventually back down, but their quarrel continued and became more embittered, culminating in Beckett fleeing the country.
Four years later, Henry was anxious to have his eldest son, the young Henry, crowned in his own lifetime to avoid a disputed succession, such as occurred after the death of his grandfather, Henry I. In January 1169, Henry and Beckett met again at a conference at Momtmirail in Normandy, which broke up in quarrels between the pair, with the immovable Beckett angrily excommunicating some of Henry's followers. Irritated at such behaviour and refusing to be thwarted, Henry had the coronation of his son carried out by the Archbishop of York to insult Thomas further. In a resultant meeting, a compromise was finally reached and Thomas returned to England.
Disputes again arose between them over similar issues and Henry, exasperated and enraged at Beckett's intransigence, (which matched his own ) uttered those final, fatal words "Will no one rid me of this turbulent priest?". Four knights, taking him at his word, proceeded to England. They rode to Canterbury where they confronted the Archbishop in the Cathedral calling him a traitor, they attempted to drag him out of the building. Thomas refused to leave and inviting martyrdom, declared himself as "No traitor but a priest of God." When one of the knights struck him on the head with his sword the others joined in and Thomas fell to the Cathedral floor having suffered fatal head injuries.
Europe was a-buzz with the scandal, Henry's fury subsided into grief. England fell under threat of excommunication. In order to weather the storm, the King did public penance for his part in the affair, walking barefoot into Canterbury Cathedral, where he allowed the monks to scourge him as a sign of contrite penance

The Rebellion of Henry's Sons : Henry was faced with a new threat, this time it came from within his own dysfunctional family, in the form of his malcontented Queen, Eleanor and his unruly sons. Henry, the newly crowned Young King, "A restless youth born for the undoing of many", was dissatisfied, he possessed grand titles but no real power. When Henry II tried to negotiate a marriage for his youngest son, John, the prospective father-in-law asked that John be given some property. The King responded by granting John three castles in Anjou. The young Henry promptly objected and demanded either England, Normandy or Anjou to rule in his own right and fled to the French court. Lead on by his father-in -law, the King of France, who had his own axe to grind, the young Henry rebelled against his father. He was joined at the court of France by his equally turbulent brothers, Richard, Duke of Aquitaine and Geoffrey, now Duke of Brittany since his marriage to the heiress Constance of Brittany.
Henry's relationship with his wife had deteriorated after the birth of their last child, John. Eleanor, twelve years older than Henry, was now decidedly middle aged. She was grievously insulted by Henry's long affair with the beautiful Rosamund Clifford, the mother of two of his illegitimate sons, whom he was said to genuinely love. Eleanor was captured attempting to join her sons in France dressed as a man. She was imprisoned by her husband for ten long years. Normandy was attacked, but the French King then retreated and Henry was able to make peace with his rebellious brood of sons.
Further disputes arose between young Henry and his equally fiery tempered brother, Richard. The Young King objected to a castle Richard had built on what he claimed to be his territory. Henry, aided by his brother Geoffrey, attempted to subdue Richard and the affair provided a further excuse to rebel against their father. Richard allied himself with their father. The Young King began to ravage Aquitaine.

The Death of Henry, 'the Young King' : The Young King plundered the rich shrine of Rocamadour, after which he fell mortally ill. When he knew death was inevitable, he asked his followers to lay him on a bed of ashes spread on the floor as a sign of repentance and begged his father to forgive and visit him. The King, suspecting a trap, refused to visit his son, but sent a sapphire ring, once owned by his grandfather Henry I, to the young Henry as a sign of his forgiveness. A few days later the Young King was dead, Henry and Eleanor mourned the loss of their errant son sincerely.
Henry planned to re-divide the Angevin Empire, giving Anjou, Maine, Normandy and England to Richard and asking him to relinquish his mother's province of Aquitaine to John. In the finest Plantagenet tradition, Richard, incensed, absolutely refused to do so. John and Geoffrey were dispatched to Aquitaine to wrest the province from their brother by force but were no match for him. The King then ordered all of his turbulent sons to England. Richard and Geoffrey now thoroughly detested each other and arguments, as ever, prevailed amongst the family. Geoffrey, a treacherous and untrustworthy youth, was killed at a Paris tournament in 1186.

The Death of Henry II : Phillip Augustus of France was eager to play on the rifts in the Plantagenet family to further his own ends of increasing the power of the French crown by regaining the Plantagenet lands. He planted further seeds of distrust by suggesting to Richard that Henry II wished to disinherit him, in favour of his known favourite, John. Richard, who now totally distrusted his father, demanded full recognition of his position as heir to the Angevin Empire. Henry haughtily refused to comply. Further rebellion was the inevitable result.
The ageing King began to feel the weight of his years and fell sick whilst at Le Mans. Richard believed him to be creating delays. He and his ally Phillip attacked the town, Henry ordered the southern suburbs of Le Mans to be set on fire to impede their advance, but it must have seemed as if the elements themselves had also conspired against him when the wind changed, spreading the fire and setting alight his much loved birthplace. Henry, greatly aggrieved, was forced into flight before his son. Pausing on a hill top to watch the blaze, with bruised pride, he raged against God in an outburst of Plantagenet passion and fury and in his immense bitterness, frenziedly denied him his soul.
A conference was arranged between the warring parties, near Tours, at which King Henry was humiliatingly forced to accept all of Richard's terms. Phillip of France, shocked at the King's gaunt appearance, offered his cloak to enable him to sit on the ground. With a flash of his old spirit, Henry proudly refused the offer. Compelled to give his son the kiss of peace, Henry whispered in his ear "God grant that I die not until I have avenged myself on thee". Henry's only request was to be provided with a list of those who had rebelled against him.
Grievously sick, the ailing lion retreated to Chinon to lick his wounds. The requested list arrived, the first name on it was that of his beloved John, the son he had trusted and fought for had deserted him to join the victors. Utterly crushed, he wished to hear no more. The faithful William Marshall and his illegitimate son Geoffrey remained by him to the end. "You are my true son," he told Geoffrey bitterly, "the others, they are the bastards" As his condition continued to deteriorate he was heard to utter "now let everything go as it will, I care no longer for myself or anything else in this world".
He lingered semi-conscious, breathing his last on 6th July, 1189. His last words were "Shame, shame on a conquered King". King Henry II, defeated at last, turned his face to the wall and died. He was succeeded by his eldest surviving son, Richard I
The king's body was laid out in the chapel of Chinon Castle, where the corpse was stripped by his servants. William Marshall and Geoffrey found a crown, sceptre and ring, which were probably taked from a religious statue. It was then taken to the Abbey of Fontevrault in Anjou for burial.
The new King Richard I was summoned by William Marshall and gazed at his father's corpse without emotion. After lying in state the body of the great Henry II was buried, according to his wishes, at the Abbey of Fontevrault, which was to become the mausoleum of the Angevin Kings.

The Children and Grandchildren of Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine
(1) Prince William, Count of Poiters 1153-56 died in infancy
(2) Henry, 'the Young King' 1155-83 m. Margaret of France.
Issue:- (i) William b. & d. 1177
(3) Matilda of England 1156-1189 m. Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony.
Issue:-
(i) Matilda of Saxony 1172-1216 m. Geoffrey III, Count of Perche
(ii) Henry I, Count Palatine of the Rhine 1173-1227
(iii) Lothaire 1174-1190
(iv) OTTO THE GREAT, HOLY ROMAN EMPEROR 1175-1219
(v) William, Duke of Luneberg 1184-1213
(4) RICHARD I ' the Lionheart' 1157-99 m. Berengaria of Navarre.
No legitimate issue
(5) Geoffrey, Duke of Brittany 1158-86 m. Constance of Brittany.
Issue:-
(i) Eleanor of Brittany 1184-1241
(ii) Matilda of Brittany 1185-1189
(iii) Arthur, Duke of Brittany 1187-1203
(6) Eleanor of England 1161-1214 m. ALPHONSO VIII OF CASTILLE.
Issue:-
(i) BERENGARIA, QUEEN OF CASTILLE 1180-1214
(ii) Sancho of Castille b. & d. 1181
(iii) Sancho of Castille 1182-84
(iv) Matilda of Castille 1183?-1204
(v) Urraca of Castille 1186-1220 m. ALPHONSO II OF PORTUGAL
(vi) Blanche of Castille m. LOUIS VIII OF FRANCE
(vii) Ferdinand of Castille 1189-1216
(viii) Constance of Castille b 1196?
(ix) Eleanor of Castille 1200-44 m. JAMES I OF ARAGON
(x) Constance of Castille 1203?-43
(xi) HENRY I OF CASTILLE 1204-1217
(7) Joanna of England 1165-99 m. (1) WILLIAM II OF SICILY (2) Raymond VI of Toulouse
Issue:- by (2)
(i) Raymond VII of Toulouse
(ii) Richard of Toulouse b. & d. 1199
(8) KING JOHN 1167-1217 m. (1) Isabella of Gloucester (2) Isabella of Angouleme
Issue:- by (2)
(i) HENRY III 1207-72 m. Eleanor of Provence
(ii) Richard, Earl of Cornwall 1209-72 m. (1) Isabella Marshall (2) Sanchia of Provence
(iii) Joanna of England 1210-38 m. ALEXANDER II, KING OF SCOTS
(iv) Isabella of England 1214-41 m. FREDERICK II HOLY ROMAN EMPEROR
(v) Eleanor of England b.1215 m. (1) William Marshall (2) Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester

+- Henry I, Beauclerc (1069-1135 AD)

2009-12-13T08:33:00.000-08:00

Early Life
Henry I was the fourth son of William the Conqueror and Matilda of Flanders and was born between May, 1068 and May, 1069 probably at Selby in Yorkshire. He was named Henry after his mother's maternal uncle, King Henry I of France. On the death of his father, Normandy was bequeathed to his eldest son, Robert Curthose, England was left to the third son, William Rufus (a second son, Richard, had been killed whilst hunting in the New Forest) and to the youngest, Henry, he left a large sum of money.

Henry I of England
Henry seized England's crown on the death of his brother, William Rufus. He had been present on the hunting expedition in the New Forest which resulted in Rufus' death, either by accident or design and left abruptly and in indecent haste to seize the treasury at Winchester. The finger of suspicion has been pointed at Henry of complicity in his brother's death, Rufus was at the time refusing to sanction Henry's plans to marry the (half Saxon) Scottish Princess Edith.
Henry I was crowned at Westminster on 1st August, 1100 and granted a popular coronation charter, promising to reform the abuses of his brother's reign. He imprisoned the despised Ranulf Flambard, Rufus' chief justiciar, thereby evoking the popular support of the English people.

Appearance and Character
Unlike Rufus, Henry had been born in England, which endeared him to the Saxon people. The historian William of Malmesbury leaves us with a contemporary description:-
'He was of middle stature, his hair was black, but scanty near the forehead; his eyes were mildly bright, his chest brawny, his body well fleshed. He was facetious in proper season, nor did multiplicity of business cause him to be less pleasant when he mixed in society. Not prone to personal combat, he verified the saying of Scipio Africanus, 'My mother bore me a commander not a soldier;' wherefore he was inferior in wisdom to no king of modern time; and I may also say, he clearly surpassed all his predecessors in England and preferred contending by counsel, rather than by the sword. If he could he conquered without bloodshed; if it was unavoidable, with as little as possible.'
Henry was well educated and able to read and write in English and Latin, from which was coined his nick-name 'Beauclerc, which was bestowed on him in the fourteenth century.

Henry further cemented his popularity, particularly among the Saxons, by marrying Edith of Scotland, the daughter of Malcolm Canmore, King of Scots and the Saxon St. Margaret (the sister of Edgar Atheling, of the Saxon Royal House) Edith, or Matilda, as she came to be known after her marriage, proved to be a good and much respected Queen.
Following the example of her saintly mother, Edith devoted herself to good causes, and often washed the feet of the poor. Though Henry was seldom faithful to his Queen, their's was generally considered a good and happy marriage by Royal standards and helped to unite the rival claims of the Norman and Saxon Houses. Henry invited the much respected Anselm to return to England, a popular move, he had obviously learned from the mistakes of Rufus and was determined not to repeat them.
Henry I proved to be a serial adulterer and begat more illegitimate children than any other English King , in all he fathered twenty bastards, by a continuous string of mistresses. One of these was the beautiful Nesta, Princess of Wales, who became the mother of the King's son, Henry. By far the most famous of Henry's illegitimate offspring was Robert of Caen, later created Earl of Gloucester, he was born in 1090, by a Norman mother, before Henry came to the English throne and was later to play a leading part on the stage of English history. Sybil, his daughter by Sybil Corbet, who was born in the 1090's was married to Alexander 'the Fierce', King of Scots, the brother of Henry's Queen, Edith.

The Conquest of Normandy
Ranulf Flambard, imprisoned in the Tower of London, affected a daring escape and joined Robert Curthose in Normandy in 1101. Robert, being the elder brother, considered England to be his just inheritance and war broke out over the issue. Robert invaded England on his return from the First Crusade, but agreement was finally reached between them whereby Robert renounced his claims to England in return for Henry's Norman lands and a pension.
Henry later led an English army into Normandy which he took from his feckless brother at the Battle of Tinchebrai in 1106. The Saxons felt that fifty years later, the humiliation of Hastings had been truly avenged. Robert was held prisoner by his brother for the rest of his life and died in captivity at the age of eighty.
Henry I destroyed the power of the tyrannical Robert of Belleme. He set up a regular system of administration, ably aided by his minister Roger of Salisbury, who commended himself to the King by the speed he could get through mass. Henry clashed with Anselm over the rights of the church but eventually came to an agreement with him.

The Tragedy of the White Ship
Although he had many illegitimate children, Henry had only three children by his wife, Edith. Two sons, William, known as the Atheling, for his descent from the ancient Saxon Royal House and Richard. His daughter Matilda, or Maud, had been married in political alliance to the Holy Roman Emperor, Henry V, in childhood. She had spent most of her life in Germany. Richard pre-deceased his father.
Tragedy struck when Henry's only remaining legitimate son, William, on returning from campaign in Normandy, was drowned in the English Channel in the wreck of the White Ship. William had got away in a lifeboat but went back for his illegitimate sister, the Countess of Perche, when his boat was overturned. Henry was overcome with immense grief.
In the hope of begetting another male heir to secure the succession, the King married for a second time to the young and beautiful Adelicia of Louvain, but the marriage produced no issue. After the death of her husband the Emperor, he recalled his daughter, by now known as the Empress, to England. He named her as his heiress and made the barons swear fealty to her.
The proud and haughty Matilda was ordered reluctantly into a marriage with the fifteen year old Geoffrey Plantagenet, son of the Count of Anjou, whom she personally loathed, a dislike which was reciprocated in full measure by her intended spouse. The marriage made an ally of Henry's erstwhile enemy, Fulk of Anjou. When the reluctant and quarrelsome pair were finally ordered by Henry I to do their duty and produce an heir to his throne, a son, the future Henry II, was born. Henry rejoiced that his dynasty was now secure and crossed to Normandy to see his new grandson, namesake and heir. The old king was said to have doted on the child.

The Death of Henry I
In 1135, Henry again crossed to Normandy to see his two grandsons, Henry and his younger brother, Geoffrey, in whom the ageing king took great delight, dandling the young Henry on his knee.
During his visit, he quarreled violently with the overbearing Matilda and her husband. Henry was now an ageing lion, these quarrels with his daughter affected him badly and he died in Normandy on 1st December, 1135 at St. Denis le Fermont, from food poisoning, due to over indulging of his favourite dish of lampreys, which his doctors had forbidden him.
His body was returned to England and was buried at Reading Abbey.
After Henry's death, despite his oath of alliegiance, the throne was seized by his nephew Stephen. Nineteen years of Civil War were to follow as Stephen and Matilda became locked in a bitter struggle for possession of the crown. In in 1153, a compromise was reached in the Treaty of Wallingford. By its terms, Stephen was to retain the crown for the remainder of his lifetime, whereupon it would revert to Matilda's son, Henry and his heirs.
King Stephen died of an apoplexy, the following year and was succeeded by Henry's grandson, Henry II, who became the the first of the great Plantagenet dynasty.

The Illegitimate Children of Henry I
Although he had only three children by his wife, Edith of Scotland, Henry I had more illegitimate children than any other British monarch, numbering twenty-four in all:-
(1) Robert of Caen, Earl of Gloucestercirca 1090-1147
(2) Sybil circa 1090-1122 m. Alexander I of Scotland, daughter of Sybil Corbet
(3) Reginald de Dunstanville, Earl of Cornwall c.1103-1175 son of Sybil Corbet
(4) William b. circa 1105 possibly the son of Sybil Corbet
(5) Rohese m. Henry de la Pomerai, possibly the daughter of Sybil Corbet
(6) Gundred possibly the daughter of Sybil Corbet
(7) Robert, d. 1172 son of Edith of Greystoke
(8) Richard c.1099-1120 son of Ansfride
(9) Juliane b. circa 1090 m. Eustace de Pacy, daughter of Ansfride
(10) Maud d.1120 m. Rotrou, Count of Perche, daughter of Edith, she drowned in the White ship.
(11) Maud m. Conan III, Duke of Brittany
(12) Alice m. Matthew de Montmoremci, Constable of France
(13) Constance m. Roscelin de Beaumont, Viscount of Maine
(14) Maud, Abbess of Montvilliers
(15) Isabel b. circa 1120 daughter of Isabel of Meulan
(16) Fulk, possibly son of Ansfride
(17) Gilbert b. circa 1130
(18) William de Tracy d. circa 1140
(19) Henry c. 1105-1157 son of Nesta, Princess of South Wales
(20) Sybil of Falaise m. Baldwin de Boullers
Henry had at least another three illegitimate daughters whose names have gone unrecorded.

+- George VI (1936-1952 AD)

2009-12-12T11:20:00.000-08:00

George VI - George VI was the second son of George V and Mary of Teck. He was born at York Cottage, Sandringham on 14th December, 1895, the anniversary of the Prince Consort's death and was christened Albert Frederick Arthur George in his honour.

George V and Queen Mary were undemonstrative parents whose children were denied affection. Bertie, as he was known to the family, developed into a withdrawn and nervous child with a pronounced stammer. He was made to wear splints to correct his knock-knees and was naturally left handed but was forced to write with his right.

Bertie was taught firstly at home by a tutor but later at the Naval Colleges of Osborne and Dartmouth. In adolescence Prince Albert was overshadowed by his handsome and popular older brother David. Both found communication with their stern and gruff father difficult. As he got older Bertie found his duties as Duke of York awkward and difficult due to his stammer, a source of much embarrassment to him.

In 1913 he entered the navy as a midshipman and in the first World War saw action at the Battle of Jutland. He later qualified as a pilot with the Royal Naval Air Service. Prince Albert was created Duke of York, the traditional title of the monarch's second son, in 1920.

Bertie fell deeply in love with Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon, the daughter of Claude George, Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne and Nina Cecilia Cavendish-Bentinck. They had first met at a children's birthday party, when she gave him the glace cherry from her cake. She met with his parents ardent approval and Bertie proposed marriage but was turned down as she did not relish the prospect of spending her life in the royal spotlight. Undeterred, he proposed for a second time and was this time accepted.

The couple were married at Westminster Abbey in April 1923. Their union produced two daughters, Princess Elizabeth Alexandra Mary, born in 1926 in London and Princess Margaret Rose, who was born at Glamis Castle, the Scottish seat of his wife's parents in 1930.

Bertie's marriage evoked the approval of his father, who strongly disapproved of his elder son David's bachelor playboy lifestyle. George V liked his new daughter-in-law, as did Bertie's mother, Queen Mary. His parents adored their two small grand-daughters, especially the elder known affectionately as Lilibet, who was always the favourite of her grandfather.

On his father's death in 1936, Bertie's elder brother David ascended the throne as Edward VIII, both the Duke and Duchess of York strongly disapproved of his relationship with the twice divorced American Mrs Simpson. Being trained and brought up only to be an officer in the navy, Bertie was appalled by the abdication crisis and the responsibilities that it unexpectedly thrust upon him. "This is absolutely terrible, I'm quite unprepared for it," he complained miserably and in panic to Louis Mountbatten, "I've never seen a state paper, I'm only a naval officer, it's the only thing I know about".

He nevertheless accepted the awesome responsibility, "You can be assured " he stated , "that I will do my best to clear up the inevitable mess, if the whole fabric does not crumble under the shock and strain of it all." He chose to reign as George VI to mark the continuity with his father's reign. his coronation took place at Westminster Abbey on 12th May, 1937.

During the Second World War, following in the footsteps of his father, King George VI attempted to boost morale and visited his troops several times and he and the Queen visited factories and blitzed areas of London. Both George VI and Winston Churchill wanted to accompany the British troops on on D-Day, but were prevented from doing so as they were considered too great a risk. The King's youngest brother, George, Duke of Kent, was killed tragically in a plane crash while conducting a mission to Iceland.

The Festival of Britain was organized in 1951, the centenary year of the Great Exhibition, to celebrate British art and design and to stimulate British trade after the upheaval of the war years. Despite his aged mother, Queen Mary describing the architecture as "quite frightful", the King gave the Festival his full support.

After the war, the King's health, never robust, began to fail. A worrier and a heavy smoker, he underwent a major operation in 1949. By 1951 it became evident that he had contracted lung cancer, although this was never revealed to him.

The last time the King appeared in public, on 31st January, 1952, was to see off his daughter Elizabeth and her husband on a tour of Africa. It was remarked that the King looked haggard and gaunt as he stood waving at the airport. George VI died peacefully in his sleep at Sandringham House on 6th February, 1952 and was buried at Windsor.

His younger daughter, Princess Margaret died on 9th February, 2002, after a series of strokes, her remains were cremated to enable them to be placed in the tomb of her father. His widow Queen Elizabeth, known as the Queen Mother after her husband's death, reached the remarkable age of 101 and died shortly after her daughter on 30th March, 2002. She was buried with her husband at Windsor.

+- George V (1865-1936 AD)

2009-12-12T10:21:00.000-08:00

George V - George V the second son of Edward VII, then Albert Edward, Prince of Wales and the beautiful Alexandra of Denmark, daughter of Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg (later Christian IX of Denmark) and Princess Louise of Hesse-Cassel. George was born on 3rd June, 1865, during the reign of his grandmother, Queen Victoria, at his parent's London residence of Marlborough House.
His parents chose the names George Frederick for the infant, which did not please Queen Victoria, who wrote censoriously "I fear I cannot admire the names you propose to give the baby, I had hoped for some fine old name. Frederick is, however, the best of the two and I hope you will call him so. George only came in with the Hanoverian family, however, if the dear child grows up good and wise, I shall not mind what his name is. Of course you will add Albert at the end, like your brothers, as you know we settled long ago that all dearest Papa's male descendants should bear that name, to mark our line, just as I wish all the girls to have Victoria after theirs." A family compromise was reached and the baby was christened George Frederick Ernest Albert.
George was not expected to inherit the throne and despite the opposition of his strongly opinionated grandmother, was trained for a career in the navy, he and his elder brother, Albert Victor, were enrolled on the Royal Navy training ship the Britannia, when he was twelve. He spent fifteen years in the Navy, which resulted in a deep affection for nautical ways which he exhibited for the rest of his life.
George matured into a short and slightly built man, with light brown hair, the large blue eyes of the Hanoverians and a clear ringing voice. He was not particularly intelligent, but possessed none of his father's vices, his favourite pastime was stamp collecting, he was to build up a large and valuable collection.
His relationship with his father was a close one and George was passionately devoted to his beautiful mother, until her death he always referred to her with much affection as his "Darling Mother dear." On the untimely death from influenza of his elder brother Albert Victor at Sandringham, George was thrust into the limelight when he became heir to the throne. Queen Victoria created her grandson Duke of York.

Mary of Teck : George was married in turn to his brother's fiancee, Princess Vict oria Mary of Teck on 6th July, 1893. Mary, or May as she was known, was a dutiful young woman, the daughter of the Austrian Francis, Duke of Teck and the rather obese Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge, the great grand-daughter of George III. As the Duke of Teck was the child of a morganatic union, May bore the title her Serene Highness, causing her Wales sisters-in-law to look down at her.
After a rather shy start, both George and his wife grew to be extremely fond of each other. May proved to be a popular Queen Consort, with a deep reverence for the crown and all things associated with it. She was an avid collector of antiques. Neither George V or the Queen were communicative or demonstrative with their children and both found it difficult to exhibit affection. The King was a gruff and strict father, who his children were terrified of. As a consequence they have both since come under some criticism in their role as parents.
Their first child, David, the future Edward VIII, was born in June1894. Queen Victoria, who held strong views on the subject of Christian names, had wished the child to be called Albert, after her husband, but the young parents held out for Edward and finally got their way.
He was followed a year later by a brother, who, as he was born on 14th December, the anniversary of the death of the Prince Consort, was named Albert to placate the Queen. Albert ( later George VI) was a nervous child, with a pronounced stutter, who was forced by his father to wear splints to correct his knock-knees and to write with his right hand, although he was naturally left-handed. He was given the traditional title of the King's second son, Duke of York.
A daughter, Victoria, followed in 1897, called Mary after the demise of the old Queen and later to become Countess Of Harewood. Henry in 1900, who was later to be created Duke of Gloucester and married Lady Alice Montagu-Douglas-Scott. Prince George in 1902, later Duke of Kent and married to Princess Marina of Greece, he was killed in an air accident in Scotland, and finally John in 1905.
John suffered badly from epilepsy and lead an isolated life on a farm at Sandringham, although he received the occasional visit from his parents, he was kept out of the public eye until his death in 1919. The family lived mainly at York Cottage, a gloomy and cramped residence on the Sandringham estate.

Reign : On the death of his father in 1910, George succeeded to the throne, the new Queen, due to her shyness, often come across as rather unsmiling and austere, leading the couple to be referred to by the less reverential as George and the Dragon.
Britain was torn with strikes in the early years of George's reign and Irish nationalist M.P.'s, with the support of the Liberals, were pushing for Home Rule. They were opposed by the Conservatives and Unionists who felt strongly that Protestant Ulster should not be ruled, against its wishes, by Irish Catholics. In the spirit of compromise, the King arranged an all-party conference at Buckingham Palace, which, however, failed to come up with a solution to the problem.

The First World War : On the outbreak of the First World War, George patriotically endeavoured to boost national morale. He carried out five visits to the troops in Flanders, during one of these he was thrown from his horse which had been alarmed by cheering soldiers, and fractured his pelvis. He and Queen Mary also tirelessly visited military hospitals, munitions factories and blitzed areas.
In 1917, concerned that his own teutonic name would alienate his subjects, the King changed the name of his house from the German Saxe-Coburg-Gotha of Queen Victoria's consort to Windsor. The name was suggested by his private secretary. At the same time his Battenberg cousins were encouraged to change theirs to the Anglicised form of Mountbatten. 'Arrived Prince Hyde, departed Lord Jekyll' wrote the King's cousin, Louis Mountbatten, in a visitor book at the time.

The Fall of the Romanovs and Hohenzollens : The First World War witnessed the fall of many of Europe's age old royal dynasties, amongst these were the the Hohenzollern dynasty in Germany and the powerful House of Romanov in Russia. Tsar Nicholas II was George's maternal first cousin, they bore a striking resemblance, the Tsarina was his cousin on his father's side, being the daughter of Queen Victoria's second daughter, Alice. Tsar Nicholas and his wife and their five children were shot by a Bolshevik firing squad in the basement of a house in Ekaterinburg, towards the end of the war.
George V has since come under severe criticism for his role in the affair. On the abdication of Nicholas II, assylum in England was offered to the Tsar and his family by the British government in response to an urgent request made by the Russian Provisional Government. George V persuaded his Prime Minister to withdraw the offer due to concerns that the move would reflect on his own popularity with the British people and therefore the survival of the House of Windsor.
The German Kaiser was also George's first cousin and he accordingly found the calls to "hang the Kaiser" at the end of the First World War distressing.
George V received his first Labour Prime Minister, Ramsey McDonald in 1923, noting that evening in his diary "Today twenty-three years ago dear Grandmama died, I wonder what she would have thought of a labour government."

The Later Years : The King's relationship with his son David, Prince of Wales, was fractious, the pair were unable to communicate and in a pattern that echoed that of the Hanoverians, had conflicting opinions on a number of issues. The King disliked David's rather informal attitude and many of his associates. He was also highly alarmed at his eldest son's relationship with a married and already divorced American woman, Wallis Warfield-Simpson.
George gave his first radio broadcast message to his people in 1932, which was well received and a great success. On the event of the King's Silver Jubilee in 1935, he was much affected by the warmth displayed towards him by the ordinary people. "I had no idea I was so popular", he confided to the Australian Prime Minister.
George was taken seriously ill on 23rd September, 1928. He was found to be suffering from septicaemia, or blood poisoning of the lung. As his condition deteriorated, his eldest son, David, the Prince of Wales, was called back prematurely from a visit to South Africa. An operation was performed to drain the infected fluid from the lung by the King's physician, Lord Dawson of Penn, his life hung in the balance and over the following few days his condition was considered dangerous, but he made a gradual recovery.
At the end of 1928, the King was forced to spend time at a convalescent home at Bognor, on the south coast. Queen Mary accompanied her husband. Despite the town acquiring the name Bognor Regis through his period of residence there, the charms of the seaside town had little effect on the king, George, a gruff and difficult patient, did not particularly enjoy his stay and was bored and irritated throughout. He returned to Windsor Castle as soon as he felt able to. He suffered two relapses but stubbornly refused to return to Bognor for further convalescence. When pushed on the point, he irascibly objected, exclaiming "Bugger Bognor!"
George was always extremely close to his unmarried sister, Princess Victoria of Wales, who rang him every morning to speak to him on the telephone. When she died on 3rd December, 1935, the King was very deeply affected and her death overshadowed the Christmas celebrations at Sandringham that year.
George V died at Sandringham House in Norfolk, a place he was known to adore, on 20th January, 1936, of a bronchial illness. Fifty years later, it was revealed in the journal History Today, that he was helped on his way by the royal physician, Lord Dawson of Penn. Dawson administered a lethal dose of morphia and cocaine to the dying King, so that his death would make the first issue of the Times and would not be reported in the " less appropriate" daily newspapers.
After lying in state at Westminster Hall for four days, during which his four sons took a turn guarding the bier, the King's body was buried in the Chapel of the Knights of the Garter at Windsor Castle. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Edward VIII.
Queen Mary lived on to witness the reign of their grand-daughter Elizabeth II, but did not survive to see her coronation. She died of lung cancer at the age of 85 on 24 March, 1953 and was buried alongside her husband at Windsor.

+- George IV (1762-1830 AD)

2009-12-12T09:27:00.000-08:00

King George IV
AKA George Augustus Frederick Hanover
Born: 12-Aug-1762
Birthplace: St. James's Palace, London, England
Died: 26-Jun-1830
Location of death: Windsor Castle, Berkshire, England
Cause of death: unspecified
Remains: Buried, Windsor Castle, Berkshire, England
Gender: Male
Race or Ethnicity: White
Sexual orientation: Straight
Occupation: Royalty
Nationality: England
Executive summary: King of England 1820-30

George IV - George IV, King of Great Britain and Ireland, eldest son of King George III, was born at St. James's Palace, London, on the 12th of August 1762. He was naturally gifted, was well taught in the classics, learned to speak French, Italian and German fluently, and had considerable taste for music and the arts; and in person he was remarkably handsome. His tutor, Bishop Richard Hurd, said of him when fifteen years old that he would be "either the most polished gentleman or the most accomplished blackguard in Europe -- possibly both"; and the latter prediction was only too fully justified. Reaction from the strict and parsimonious style of his parents' domestic life, which was quite out of touch with the gaiety and extravagance of London society, had its natural effect in plunging the young Prince of Wales, flattered and courted as he was, into a whirl of pleasure-seeking. At the outset his disposition was brilliant and generous, but it was essentially unstable, and he started even before he came of age on a career of dissipation which in later years became wholly profligate. He had an early amour with the actress Mary ("Perdita") Robinson, and in the choice of his friends he opposed and annoyed the king, with whom he soon became (and always remained) on the worst of terms, by associating himself with Charles James Fox and Richard Brinsley Sheridan and the Whig party. When in 1783 he came of age, a compromise between the coalition ministry and the king secured him an income of £50,000 from the Civil List, and £60,000 was voted by parliament to pay his debts and start his separate establishment at Carlton House. There, under the auspices of C. J. Fox and Georgiana, Duchess of Devonshire, he posed as a patron of Whig politics and a leader in all the license and luxury of society -- the "First gentleman in Europe", as his flatterers described him as years went on. And at this early age he fell seriously in love with the famous Mrs Fitzherbert.
His long connection with this lady may most conveniently be summarized here. It was indeed for some time the one redeeming and restraining factor in his life, though her devotion and self-sacrificing conduct were in marked contrast with his unscrupulousness and selfishness. Mary Anne (or as she always called herself, Maria) Fitzherbert (1756-1837) was the daughter of Walter Smythe, the second son of Sir John Smythe, Bart., of Acton Burnell Park, Shropshire, and came of an old Roman Catholic family. Educated at a French convent, she married first in 1775 Edward Weld, who died within the year, and secondly in 1778 Thomas Fitzherbert, who died in 1781, leaving his widow with a comfortable fortune. A couple of years later she became a prominent figure in London society, and her beauty and charm at once attracted the young prince, who wooed her with all the ardor of a violent passion. She herself was distracted between her desire to return his love, her refusal to contemplate becoming his mistress, and her knowledge that state reasons made a regular marriage impossible. The Act of Settlement (1689) entailed his forfeiture of the succession if he married a Roman Catholic, apart from the fact that the Royal Marriage Act of 1772 made any marriage illegal without the king's consent, which was out of the question. But after trying for a while to escape his attentions, her scruples were overcome. In Mrs. Fitzherbert's eyes the state law was, after all, not everything. To a Roman Catholic, and equally to any member of the Christian church, a formal marriage ceremony would be ecclesiastically and sacramentally binding; and after a period of passionate importunacy on his part they were secretly married by the Rev. R. Burt, a clergyman of the Church of England, on the 15th of December 1785. There is no doubt as to Mrs. Fitzherbert's belief, supported by ecclesiastical considerations, in her correct and binding, though admittedly illegal, relationship to the prince as his canonical wife; and though that relationship was not, and for political reasons could not be, publicly admitted, it was in fact treated by their intimates on the footing of a morganatic marriage. The position nevertheless was inevitably a false one; Mrs. Fitzherbert had promised not to publish the evidence of the marriage (which, according to a strict interpretation of the Act of Settlement might have barred succession to the crown), and the rumors which soon got about led the prince to allow it to be disavowed by his political friends. He lived in the most extravagant way, became heavily involved in debt, and as the king would not assist him, shut up Carlton House, and went to live with Mrs. Fitzherbert at Brighton. In 1787 a proposal was brought before the House of Commons by Alderman Newnham for a grant in relief of his embarrassments. It was on this occasion that Fox publicly declared in the House of Commons, as on the prince's own authority, in answer to allusions to the marriage, that the story was a malicious falsehood. A little later Sheridan, in deference to Mrs. Fitzherbert's pressure and to the prince's own compunction, made a speech guardedly modifying Fox's statement; but though in private the denial was understood, it effected its object, the House voting a grant of £221,000 to the prince and the king adding £10,000 to his income; and Mrs. Fitzherbert, who at first thought of severing her connection with the prince, forgave him. Their union -- there was no child of the marriage -- was brutally broken off in June 1794 by the prince, when further pressure of debts (and the influence of a new Egeria in Lady Jersey) made him contemplate his official marriage with princess Caroline; in 1800, however, it was renewed, after urgent pleading on the prince's part, and after Mrs. Fitzherbert had obtained a formal decision from the pope pronouncing her to be his wife, and sanctioning her taking him back; her influence over him continued until shortly before the prince became regent, when his relations with Lady Hertford brought about a final separation. For the best years of his life he had at least had in Mrs. Fitzherbert the nearest approach to a real wife, and this was fully recognized by the royal family. But his dissolute nature was entirely selfish, and his various liaisons ended in the dominance of Lady Conyngham, the "Lady Steward" of his household, from 1821 until his death.
Notorious as the Prince of Wales had become by 1788, it was in that year that his father's first attack of insanity made his position in the state one of peculiar importance. Fox maintained and Pitt denied that the Prince of Wales, as the heir-apparent, had a right to assume the regency independently of any parliamentary vote. Pitt, with the support of both Houses, proposed to confer upon him the regency with certain restrictions. The recovery of the king in February 1789 put an end, however, to the prince's hopes. In 1794 the prince consented to a marriage with a German Protestant princess, because his father would not pay his debts on any other terms, and his cousin, Princess Caroline of Brunswick, was brought over from Germany and married to him in 1795. Her behavior was light and flippant, and he was brutal and unloving. The ill-assorted pair soon parted, and soon after the birth of their only child, the princess Charlotte, they were formally separated. With great unwillingness the House of Commons voted fresh sums of money to pay the prince's debts.
In 1811 he at last became prince regent in consequence of his father's definite insanity. No one doubted at that time that it was in his power to change the ministry at his pleasure. He had always lived in close connection with the Whig opposition, and he now empowered Lord Grenville to form a ministry. There soon arose differences of opinion between them on the answer to be returned to the address of the Houses, and the prince regent then informed the prime minister, Spencer Perceval, that he should continue the existing ministry in office. The ground alleged by him for this desertion of his friends was the fear lest his father's recovery might be rendered impossible if he should come to hear of the advent of the opposition to power. Lord Richard Colley Wellesley's resignation in February 1812 made the reconstruction of the ministry inevitable. As there was no longer any hope of the king's recovery, the former objection to a Whig administration no longer existed. Instead of taking the course of inviting the Whigs to take office, he asked them to join the existing administration. The Whig leaders, however, refused to join, on the ground that the question of the Catholic disabilities was too important to be shelved, and that their difference of opinion with Perceval was too glaring to be ignored. The prince regent was excessively angry, and continued Perceval in office until that minister's assassination on the 11th of May, when he was succeeded by Lord Liverpool, after a negotiation in which the proposition of entering the cabinet was again made to the Whigs and rejected by them. In the military glories of the following years the prince regent had no share. When the allied sovereigns visited England in 1814, he played the part of host to perfection. So great was his unpopularity at home that hisses were heard in the streets as he accompanied his guests into the city. The disgust which his profligate and luxurious life caused amongst a people suffering from almost universal distress after the conclusion of the war rapidly increased. In 1817 the windows of the prince regent's carriage were broken as he was on his way to open parliament.
The death of George III on the 29th of January 1820 gave to his son the title of king without in any way altering the position which he had now held for nine years. Indirectly, however, this change brought out a manifestation of popular feeling such as his father had never been subjected to even in the early days of his reign, when mobs were burning jack-boots and petticoats. The relations between the new king and his wife unavoidably became the subject of public discussion. In 1806 a charge against the princess of having given birth to an illegitimate child had been conclusively disproved, and the old king had consequently refused to withdraw her daughter, the princess Charlotte, from her custody. When in the regency the prince was able to interfere, and prohibited his wife from seeing her daughter more than once a fortnight. On this, in 1813, the princess addressed to her husband a letter setting forth her complaints, and receiving no answer published it in the Morning Chronicle. The prince regent then referred the letter, together with all papers relating to the inquiry of 1806, to a body of twenty-three privy councillors for an opinion whether it was fit that the restrictions on the intercourse between the princess Charlotte and her mother should continue in force. All except two answered as the regent wished them to answer. But if the official leaning was towards the husband, the leaning of the general public was towards the wife of a man whose own life had not been such as to justify him in complaining of her whom he had thrust from him without a charge of any kind. Addresses of sympathy were sent up to the princess from the city of London and other public bodies. The discord again broke out in 1814 in consequence of the exclusion of the princess from court during the visit of the allied sovereigns. In August in that year she left England, and after a little time took up her abode in Italy. The accession of George IV brought matters to a crisis. He ordered that no prayer for his wife as queen should be admitted into the Prayer Book. She at once challenged the accusation which was implied in this omission by returning to England. On the 7th of June she arrived in London. Before she left the continent she had been informed that proceedings would be taken against her for adultery if she landed in England. Two years before, in 1818, commissioners had been sent to Milan to investigate charges against her, and their report, laid before the cabinet in 1819, was made the basis of the prosecution. On the day on which she arrived in London a message was laid before both Houses recommending the criminating evidence to parliament. A secret committee in the House of Lords after considering this evidence brought in a report on which the prime minister founded a Bill of Pains and Penalties to divorce the queen and to deprive her of her royal title. The bill passed the three readings with diminished majorities, and when on the third reading it obtained only a majority of nine, it was abandoned by the Government. The king's unpopularity, great as it had been before, was now greater than ever. Public opinion, without troubling itself to ask whether the queen was guilty or not, was roused to indignation by the spectacle of such a charge being brought by a husband who had thrust away his wife to fight the battle of life alone, without protection or support, and who, while surrounding her with spies to detect, perhaps to invent, her acts of infidelity, was himself notorious for his adulterous life. In the following year (1821) she attempted to force her way into Westminster Abbey to take her place at the coronation. On this occasion the popular support failed her; and her death in August relieved the king from further annoyance.
Immediately after the death of the queen, the king set out for Ireland. He remained there but a short time, and his effusive declaration that rank, station, honors were nothing compared with the exalted happiness of living in the hearts of his Irish subjects gained him a momentary popularity which was beyond his attainment in a country where he was better known. His reception in Dublin encouraged him to attempt a visit to Edinburgh in the following year (August 1822). Since Charles II had come to play the sorry part of a covenanting king in 1650 no sovereign of the country had set foot on Scottish soil. Sir Walter Scott took the leading part in organizing his reception. The enthusiasm with which he was received equalled, if it did not surpass, the enthusiasm with which he had been received in Dublin. But the qualities which enabled him to fix the fleeting sympathies of the moment were not such as would enable him to exercise the influence in the government which had been indubitably possessed by his father. He returned from Edinburgh to face the question of the appointment of a secretary of state which had been raised by the death of Lord Londonderry (Castlereagh). It was upon the question of the appointment of ministers that the battle between the Whigs and the king had been fought in the reign of George III. George IV had neither the firmness nor the moral weight to hold the reins which his father had grasped. He disliked George Canning for having taken his wife's side very much as his father had disliked Fox for taking his own. But Lord Liverpool insisted on Canning's admission to office, and the king gave way. Tacitly and without a struggle the constitutional victory of the last reign was surrendered. But it was not surrendered to the same foe as that from which it had been won. The coalition ministry in 1784 rested on the great landowners and the proprietors of rotten boroughs. Lord Liverpool's ministry had hitherto not been very enlightened, and it supported itself to a great extent upon a narrow constituency. But it did appeal to public opinion in a way that the coalition did not, and what it wanted itself in popular support would be supplied by its successors. What one king had gained from a clique another gave up to the nation. Once more, on Lord Liverpool's death in 1827, the same question was tried with the same result. The king not only disliked Canning personally, but he was opposed to Canning's policy. Yet after some hesitation he accepted Canning as prime minister; and when, after Canning's death and the short ministry of Lord Goderich, the king in 1828 authorized the Duke of Wellington to form a ministry, he was content to lay down the principle that the members of it were not expected to be unanimous on the Catholic question. When in 1829 the Wellington ministry unexpectedly proposed to introduce a Bill to remove the disabilities of the Catholics, he feebly strove against the proposal and quickly withdrew his opposition. The worn-out debauchee had neither the merit of acquiescing in the change nor the courage to resist it.
George IV died on the 26th of June 1830, and was succeeded by his brother, the Duke of Clarence, as King William IV. His only child by Queen Caroline, the princess Charlotte Augusta, was married in 1816 to Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, afterwards King Leopold I of the Belgians, and died in childbirth on the 6th of November 1817.
George IV. was a bad king, and his reign did much to disgust the country with the Georgian type of monarchy; but libertine and profligate as he became, the abuse which has been lavished on his personal character has hardly taken into sufficient consideration the loose morals of contemporary society, the political position of the Whig party, and his own ebullient temperament. Thackeray, in his Four Georges, is frequently unfair in this respect. The just condemnation of the moralist and satirist requires some qualification in the light of the picture of the period handed down in the memoirs and diaries of the time, such as Greville's, Croker's, Creevey's, Lord Holland's, Lord Malmesbury's, etc.
Father: King George IIIMother: Charlotte of Mecklenburg-StrelitzWife: Maria Anne Fitzherbert (m. 15-Dec-1785, secretly)Wife: Caroline of Brunswick (m. 8-Apr-1795, sep. 1796, d. 7-Aug-1821)Daughter: Princess Charlotte Augusta (b. 7-Jan-1796, d. 6-Nov-1817)Daughter: Georgina Frederica Augusta Elliott (b. 1782, by Grace)Son: George Milbanke (b. 1784, by Elizabeth)Mistress: Mary RobinsonMistress: Grace DalrympleMistress: Frances, Lady JerseyMistress: Elizabeth Milbanke
UK Monarch 29-Jan-1820 to 26-Jun-1830 Risk Factors: Gout

+- George III (1760-1820 AD)

2009-12-12T08:45:00.000-08:00

George III - George III was born in 1738, first son of Frederick, Prince of Wales and Augusta. He married Charlotte of Mecklinburg-Strelitz in 1761, to whom he was devoted. The couple produced a prolific fifteen children: nine sons and six daughters. George was afflicted with porphyria, a maddening disease which disrupted his reign as early as 1765. Several attacks strained his grip on reality and debilitated him in the last years of his reign. Personal rule was given to his son George, the Prince Regent, in 1811. George III died blind, deaf and mad at Windsor Castle on January 29, 1820.George III succeeded his grandfather, George II, in 1760 (Frederick, Prince of Wales, had died in 1751 having never ruled). George was determined to recover the prerogative lost to the ministerial council by the first two Georges; in the first two decades of the reign, he methodically weakened the Whig party through bribery, coercion and patronage. Prime Minister, William Pitt the Elder was toppled by Whigs after the Peace of Paris, and men of mediocre talent and servile minds were hand-picked by George as Cabinet members, acting as little more than yes-men. Bouts with madness and the way he handled the American Revolution eroded his support and the power of the Crown was granted again to the Prime Minister.The Peace of Paris (1763) ended the Seven Years' War with France, with the strenuous, anti-French policies of the elder Pitt emphasizing naval superiority in the colonial warfare. Great Britain emerged from the conflict as the world's greatest colonial power. England thrived under peacetime conditions, but George's commitment to taxing the American colonies to pay for military protection led to hostilities in 1775. The colonists proclaimed independence in 1776, but George obstinately continued the war until the final American victory at Yorktown in 1781. The Peace of Versailles, signed in 1783, ensured British acknowledgment of the United States of America. The defeat cost George dearly: his sanity was stretched to the breaking point and his political power decreased when William Pitt the Younger became Prime Minister in 1783. George reclaimed some of his power, driving Pitt from office from 1801-04, but his condition worsened again and he ceased to rule in 1811.The peace following the French war settlement was short-lived. A mere ten years later, England joined a continental alliance against French revolutionary forces who, after gaining power in France, sought total French hegemony across Europe. By 1797, the largest part of Europe was under French dominance, with England standing alone against the revolutionary Republic. The British Navy again proved decisive, defeating French forces at Camperdown, Cape St. Vincent and the Battle of the Nile in 1797, and finally at Copenhagen in 1801. Peace was negotiated at Amiens in 1802, with the French supreme on land and the British at sea. Napoleon Bonaparte seized supreme power in France at the turn of the century, and renewed attacks against England in 1803. Hostilities with France lasted until 1814 taking several forms. Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington, led the land attack; the navy, commanded by Lord Horatio Nelson won the decisive battle off Cape Trafalgar, and imposed a blockade of Europe to offset Napoleon's " continental system" which was forbidden from importing British goods; and the younger Pitt guided the government through the hardships of total war. In addition to the continental conflict, England went to war again with the United States between 1812-14, over the British practice of pressing American seamen into service in the British Navy. Both conflicts were resolved in 1814; Napoleon was deposed and England agreed not to abscond with American sailors. Napoleon returned to Europe briefly in 1815, but was soundly defeated by continental forces led by Wellington.Other events and people also marked the reign. A second Act of Union was passed in 1801, bringing Ireland under the umbrella of Great Britain until the Government of Ireland Act (1920) established the modern arrangement. Slave trade was abolished in 1807, although slavery continued in British colonies until 1833. Population increases, improvements in agricultural and industrial methods and a revolution in transportation spurred British economic growth. English literature was graced by some of its best known authors: Wordsworth, Shelley and Keats were among the writers of the era.George's madness ultimately left the fate of the crown on his eldest son George, Prince Regent. Prince George was put in the daunting position of attempting to govern according to the increasingly erratic will of his father. A letter received by novelist E. M. Frostier from his aunt, Marine Thornton, describes the situation: "... there he was sitting on the Throne with his King's Crown on, his robes scarlet and ermine, and held his speech written out for him, just what he had to say. But, oh dear, he strode up and made a bow and began "My Lords and Peacocks'. The people who were not fond of him laughed, the people who did love him cried, and he went back to be no longer a king, and his eldest son reigned in his stead".

+- George II (1683-1760 AD)

2009-12-11T07:47:00.000-08:00

George II - George II was born November 10, 1683, the only son of George I and Sophia. His youth was spent in the Hanoverian court in Germany, and he married Caroline of Anspach in 1705. He was truly devoted to Caroline; she bore him three sons and five daughters, and actively participated in government affairs, before she died in 1737. Like his father, George was very much a German prince, but at the age of 30 when George I ascended the throne, he was young enough to absorb the English culture that escaped his father. George II died of a stroke on October 25, 1760.

George possessed three passions: the army, music and his wife. He was exceptionally brave and has the distinction of being the last British sovereign to command troops in the field (at Dettingen against the French in 1743). He inherited his father's love of opera, particularly the work of George Frederick Handel, who had been George I's court musician in Hanover. Caroline proved to be his greatest asset. She revived traditional court life (which had all but vanished under George I, was fiercely intelligent and an ardent supporter of Robert Walpole. Walpole continued in the role of Prime Minister at Caroline's behest, as George was loathe keeping his father's head Cabinet member. The hatred George felt towards his father was reciprocated by his son, Frederick, Prince of Wales, who died in 1751.Walpole retired in 1742, after establishing the foundation of the modern constitutional monarchy: a Cabinet responsible to a Parliament, which was, in turn, responsible to an electorate. At that time, the system was far from truly democratic; the electorate was essentially the voice of wealthy landowners and mercantilists. The Whig party was firmly in control, although legitimist Tories attempted one last Jacobite rebellion in 1745, by again trying to restore a Stuart to the throne. Prince Charles Edward Stuart, known as the Young Pretender or Bonnie Prince Charlie, landed in Scotland and marched as far south as Derby, causing yet another wave of Anti-Catholicism to wash over England. The Scots retreated, and in 1746, were butchered by the Royal Army at Culloden Moor. Bonnie Prince Charlie escaped to France and died in Rome. The Tories became suspect due to their associations with Jacobitism, ensuring oligarchic Whig rule for the following fifty years.Walpole managed to keep George out of continental conflicts for the first twelve years of the reign, but George declared war on Spain in 1739, against Walpole's wishes. The Spanish war extended into the 1740's as a component of the War of Austrian Succession, in which England fought against French dominance in Europe. George shrank away from the situation quickly: he negotiated a hasty peace with France, to protect Hanover. The 1750's found England again at war with France, this time over imperial claims. Fighting was intense in Europe, but North America and India were also theatres of the war. Government faltering in response to the French crisis brought William Pitt the Elder, later Earl of Chatham, to the forefront of British politics.Thackeray describes George II and Walpole as such, in The Four Georges "... how he was a choleric little sovereign; how he shook his fist in the face of his father's courtiers; how he kicked his coat and wig about in his rages; and called everybody thief, liar, rascal with whom he differed: you will read in all the history books; and how he speedily and shrewdly reconciled himself with the bold minister, whom he had hated during his father's life, and by whom he was served during fifteen years of his own with admirable prudence, fidelity, and success. But for Robert Walpole, we should have had the Pretender back again."